The Double Standard Toward Female and Male Victims of Non-consensual Dissemination of Intimate Images

Abstract

Non-consensual dissemination of intimate images (NCII) is a growing problem of sexual violence with grave consequences for victims. However, despite recent criminalization and civil and legal sanctions, there is reason to suspect that the majority of NCII cases remain unreported. The reasons for that may be similar to the ones accounting for under-reporting in cases of physical sexual violence and are tied to society’s attitude toward victims. Being a relatively new form of violence, psychological research on perceptions of NCII victims and offenders is scarce. The purpose of the present study was to extend the current knowledge by comparing perceptions toward female and male victims of NCII, while manipulating the victim’s role in producing the intimate material. Drawing on rape research, it was hypothesized that gender stereotypes interact with victims’ sex and behavior to influence the way victims are perceived. Five-hundred and thirty-nine male and female students were presented with a scenario depicting an NCII offense in which the intimate material was either self-generated by the victim (selfies) or stealth-taken by the victim’s ex-intimate partner. Victim and offender sex were also manipulated. The findings indicate a differential treatment toward female and male victims of NCII, depending on their role in the taking of the intimate images. More blaming was attributed toward a female victim whose intimate images were self-taken, in comparison to all other research conditions, and negative feelings toward her were the highest as well. These blame attributions, as well as negative feelings toward female victims, were particularly high on the side of male participants. The findings are interpreted as reflecting perceptions of traditional gender roles and a double standard toward female and male sexual behavior.

In the eye of the beholder: Decision-making of lawyers in cases of sexual harassment

“…Bias was further assessed using a manipulation of the victim's gender. There is ample research suggesting that female and male victims may receive differential treatment by lay people and legal professionals alike [e.g., [50][51][52][53][54]. Thus, we used two scenarios, identical in all aspects aside from victim and offender gender.…”

“Weaponized sexuality” to the normalization of sexual violence: Rape culture and the nonconsensual distribution of intimate imagery (NCDII)

“…Much of the available literature suggests victims/survivors are blamed, at least in part, for their involvement when NCDII occurs (Henry, Flynn & Powell, 2019;Gavin & Scott, 2019). Responsibilization themes and suggestions of risk management are particularly prevalent with victim/survivor self-captured/shared imagery, as it is viewed as something which should be expected as normal, most reportedly so when the individual depicted is female (Pacheco, Melhuish and Fiske;2019;Shariff & DeMartini, 2015;Zvi & Bitton, 2021;Zvi, 2021). The notion individuals should anticipate distribution as an expected result of engaging in initial consensual imagery capturing/sharing is a disturbing finding, though one constituent of rape culture.…”

“…A further barrier preventing victims/survivors from reporting is the reluctance to show police the imagery to prove NCDII occurred (Morteux et al, 2019). Males may have increased reluctance due to stereotype inspired fears they will not be taken seriously (Zvi, 2021).…”

“…Responsibilization. The literature suggests rape culture results in victims/survivors being held responsible for their own experience when NCDII occurs Henry, Flynn & Powell, 2019;Zvi, 2021). I wanted to know the extent of victim-blaming by examining who is deemed primarily, or wholly responsible when NCDII occurs.…”

“…As presented in the literature, originally self-created/shared intimate imagery that is later distributed non-consensually results in many victims/survivors being blamed (Pacheco, Melhuish & Fiske, 2019), particularly if they are female (Zvi, 2021). Given most victims/survivors in this research engaged in self-capturing/sharing of intimate content, and identify as female, degrees of victim-blame experienced by the sample are probable, particularly considering my findings which suggest (at least) 37.88% (n=436) of the sample held varying ideals of victim/survivor responsibilization.…”