The dynamic process of cognitive mapping in the absence of visual cues:human data compared with animal studies

Abstract

SUMMARYThe present study aimed to investigate the behavior involved in constructing spatial representation in humans. For this, blindfolded adult human subjects were introduced into an unfamiliar environment, where they were requested to move incessantly for 10 min. Analysis of the locomotor activity of the participants revealed the following exploratory behaviors: (1) 'looping'; (2) 'wall-following'; (3) 'step-counting'; (4) 'cross-cutting'; and (5) 'free traveling'. Looping is a typical exploratory mode of sightless explorers, based on returning to a recently traveled place. Wall-following is common in enclosed spaces, whereby explorers follow the perimeter of the environment. Both looping and wall-following are based on an egocentric frame of reference by which explorers obtain information about the shape, size and landmarks in the environment. Blindfolded explorers displayed step-counting in order to scale the environment and the relationships in it. Altogether, exploration by looping, wall-following and step-counting resulted in an allocentric spatial representation. The acquisition of spatial representation was manifested by crosscutting and free travel, with subjects walking in a relatively fast and decisive manner. In light of the above modes of activity, we suggest that exploration of an unfamiliar environment is a synergetic self-organized process (synergetic inter-representation networks, SIRN model); an interplay between external and internal representations. According to this model, the interplay gives rise to an order parameter, such as the environment's dimensions or geometry, enabling progression to a subsequent exploratory behavior. This dynamic and sequential interplay reaches a steady state when a spatial representation (i.e. 'cognitive map') is established. Supplementary material available online at

Autonomous robotic intracardiac catheter navigation using haptic vision

“…After initial wall-following exploration, blinded animals as well as people have been observed to use their environmental map to create shortcuts through free space (33,34,36,37). While not formally studied, we observed similar behavior in our previously published experiments with a handheld instrument (13).…”

Wall following inXenopus laevisis passive

“…Moreover, wall following can also serve as a useful spatial exploration strategy. Especially under conditions when long-range sensing such as vision is not available, exploration of the environment based on touch along its borders can provide the basis for the formation of a cognitive map (Kallai et al, 2007; Yaski et al, 2009) and serve as a reference frame for later exploration (Kallai et al, 2005). However, this is only useful as an initial strategy; if it is used excessively it can even prevent further spatial learning (Kallai et al, 2007).…”

Information and Self-Organization II: Steady State and Phase Transition

“…Movement in the environment is also the basis of the phenomenon of exploratory behavior that refers to the innate tendency of animals to perform a highly structured pattern of exploratory movements when introduced to a new environments [41]. Thus, Yaski, Portugali, and Eilam [42] suggested a link between the processes of cognitive mapping and exploratory behavior. As part of their attempt to explore the role of exploratory behavior in the cognitive mapping process, they conducted a set of experiment with rats [43][44][45] and one with human subjects [42].…”

“…Then, she performed a cross-cut (C) and, finally, traveled freely across the test room (D). Source: Reference [42], Figure 1.…”