The earliest fossil evidence of bone boring by terrestrial invertebrates, examples from China and South Africa

Osteopathology and insect traces in the Australopithecus africanus skeleton StW 431

“…Morphological and metrological variables are key in the identification of insect traces on bone but they have little application in identifying a specific causal agent responsible for their creation. 23,[35][36][37] Traces produced by insects are morphologically consistent despite geographical and/or temporal distribution; for example, furrows as described in this study from the Plio-Pleistocene are consistent with traces recently reported from the Jurassic of China. 36 Shallow circular holes have been reported throughout the Mesozoic and well into the Late Cenozoic; the most commonly inferred causal agent of traces during the Mesozoic are dermestids 34,[41][42][43][44] , but this shifts during the Cenozoic to termites being the most commonly inferred agent 21,24,[45][46][47] .…”

“…In that the morphological categories proposed by Pirrone et al 20 and Parkinson 23 are by no means independent of one another -it is widely accepted that they represent transitional morphotypes which relate to the orientation of the excavation relative to the bone surface. [34][35][36][37] For example, if an insect excavates perpendicular to the bone surface and thus penetrates vertically in the bone, the trace would transition through a number of morphologies: initially it would be a pit, transition into a hole, and culminate in a tube. Alternatively, if the excavation is orientated parallel to the bone surface, the initial excavations would potentially take the form of a chamber and culminate in a meandering furrow.…”

“…Subsequently, Cubiculum levis was described from Argentina as a chamber which is characterised by a bowl-shaped morphology in cross section. 35 However, in the past 18 months Cubiculum has expanded to include a further two taxa: C. inornatus, which is similar in morphology and size to C. ornatus but lacks the characteristic gnawing marks/grooves 36 , and, most recently, C. cooperi, which has been described from Cooper's D in the Cradle of Humankind 23 . C. cooperi is distinguishable from all other Cubiculum taxa because of the absence of gnawing marks/grooves, as well as a uniquely consistent length to width ratio of 2:1.…”

“…23,[35][36][37]44 Interestingly, the majority of these authors who have described ichnotaxa in bone have avoided attributing a specific causal agent to the traces for various reasons. 23,[35][36][37] These authors recognise that the trace is a reflection of behaviour, and that behaviour could easily be mimicked by numerous agents belonging to a diversity of insect groups. Simply put, more experimental research is required to begin to better understand and document the minor morphological variables between traces in bone produced by a substantially wider diversity of potential agents.…”

Trace fossils on dinosaur bones reveal ecosystem dynamics along the coast of eastern North America during the latest Cretaceous

“…Invertebrate traces on dinosaur bones are somewhat uncommon, though insect traces on bones deposited in inland settings have been extensively described in the literature (e.g., Rogers, 1992 ; Hasiotis, Fiorillo & Hanna, 1999 ; Paik, 2000 ; West & Martin, 2002 ; Hasiotis, 2004 ; Kirkland & Bader, 2010 ; Roberts, Rogers & Foreman, 2007 ; West & Hasiotis, 2007 ; Bader, Hasiotis & Martin, 2009 ; Xing et al, 2016 ). These vary in morphology (e.g., Bader, Hasiotis & Martin, 2009 ; Xing et al, 2016 ) and have been shown as important indicators of the taphonomy of the bones on which they lie (e.g., Martin & West, 1995 ; Hasiotis, Fiorillo & Hanna, 1999 ; West & Hasiotis, 2007 ; Bader, Hasiotis & Martin, 2009 ).…”