The Economic Effects of Long-Term Climate Change: Evidence from the Little Ice Age

Foreshadowing Mars: Religiosity and Pre-Enlightenment Warfare

“…Dyad-fixed effects control away each dyad's unique history, their relative geographies and fundamental cultural similarities and differences, as well as any other dyad-specific factors that do not change (or only change slowly) over time. Year-fixed effects filter out contemporary global developments that may independently affect warfare and religiosity, such as the Little Ice Age (1600-1850; e.g., see Parker, 2013 andWaldinger, 2022). In additional analyses, we also incorporate dyad-specific time trends, where we observe consistent estimates (see Table E2).…”

Railways and cities in India

“…Because the city fixed effects will remove any time-invariant geographical controls, we follow the same procedure as in several studies where time-varying historical control variables are difficult to obtain (e.g. Juhász (2018) and Waldinger (2022)) and interact our controls 𝑥 𝑖,0 with the year fixed effects. The baseline controls we include in 𝑥 𝑖,0 are latitude, longitude, log distance to river, log distance to coast, ruggedness, malaria, altitude, precipitation, temperature, and suitability for dryland rice, wetland rice, wheat, and cotton.…”

Climate change and credit risk in rural financial institutions: A study based on transition risk

“…These events not only directly jeopardize human lives and livelihoods but also exert profound impacts on critical sectors such as infrastructure, agriculture, and water resources. Moreover, they destabilize the economic system, precipitating substantial economic and societal losses on a global scale (Villavicencio et al, 2013; Campiglio et al, 2018; Waldinger, 2022). In the face of escalating climate risks, global society is increasingly cognizant of the urgency to take action to reduce carbon emissions.…”