The Effect of Education on Age-Related Changes in Three Cognitive Domains: A Cross-Sectional Study in Primary Care

Abstract

The present study aims to investigate the protective effect of formal education on age-related changes in different cognitive domains with the hypothesis that it may attenuate the rate of decline. Individuals aged 50 years or older attending primary care physicians without known brain disease (431 participants, mostly [60.3%] female with 66.3 [±9.1] years of age and 7.7 [±4.1] years of education, on average), were evaluated with a neuropsychological battery including 28 cognitive measures. Cognitive domains identified by factor analysis were subject to repeated multiple regression analyses to determine the variance explained by age and education controlling for gender, depressive symptoms, and vascular risk factors. The slope of the regression equation was compared between two educational groups with an average of 4 years and 11 years of education, respectively. Factors identified corresponded to processing ability (Factor 1), memory (Factor 2), and acquired knowledge (Factor 3). Although education improved performance in Factors 1 and 3, it did not change the slope of age-related decline in any factor. This study suggests that in culturally heterogeneous groups, small increments in education enhance cognition but do not modify the rate of decline of executive functioning with age. These results contradict some clinical findings and need to be confirmed in longitudinal studies.

How subjective are subjective language complaints

“…This study is part of a larger prospective longitudinal project [19] aimed to evaluate the cognitive profiles in ageing in a cohort of adults, followed in public primary care centres, without known brain disease. A detailed description of the project, population and method, including the cognitive battery used, has been reported elsewhere [19].…”

“…The original cognitive battery included 28 tests or measures directed to different cognitive domains [19]. For this study, we selected the 15 most frequently used measures to assess language, episodic memory and executive functions.…”

Migraine, Headaches, and Cognition

“…The battery also included scales of depression (geriatric depression scale [GDS]) 36 and subjective memory complaints (SMQ) 37 . A more detailed description of this study and battery, focusing on targeted cognitive domains, the validity of the battery, and the effects of aging on different domains, has been reported elsewhere, 38 as well as the study on the frequency and significance of subjective language complaints 39 . In the present study, we sought the effects of migraine or other headaches in specific cognitive tests but more specifically those related to executive functioning.…”

“…The impact of migraine or NMH on cognitive performance, controlling for the possible confounders, 38 was evaluated by multiple linear regression analysis (MRA). Scores obtained on cognitive measures under study were the dependent variables.…”

Neurological subtle signs and cognitive development: A study in late childhood and adolescence

“…The seven factors (and the tests measuring them) are as follows: 1) Divided Attention (Trails A and B); 2) Selective Attention (Stroop Test, Portuguese version which construct validity has proved similar to the original English version in another study (Martins et al, in press)); 3) Visual Learning and Recall (WRAML Test); 4) Motor Speed (Finger Tapping with Dominant and Non-Dominant Hands); 5) Visual-Motor Speed (Pegs Dominant and Non-Dominant); 6) Verbal Learning and Recall (Rey Auditory Learning Test); and 7) Working Memory (Digit Span and Finger Windows). The above were the tests examined in NSS1.…”