The Effect of Losses Disguised as Wins and Near Misses in Electronic Gaming Machines: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Near misses and losses disguised as wins have been of interest to gambling researchers and policymakers for many years (e.g., Griffiths in J Gambl Stud 9(2):101–120, 1993). This systematic literature review describes the behavioural, psychological, and psychobiological effects of near misses and losses disguised as wins (LDWs) in an effort to evaluate their precise influence on the player and to highlight areas requiring further investigation. A systematic search for relevant studies was conducted using Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, ProQuest Sociology databases, and the Gambling Research Exchange Ontario Knowledge Repository. A total of 51 (from an initial pool of 802) experimental peer-reviewed studies using human participants were found between 1991 and 2015. The systematic review revealed that near misses motivate continued play, but have varying effects on the emotional state or betting behaviour of the player. Near miss events were also shown to be associated with elevated skin conductance levels and diffuse activity across the brain, most consistently in areas processing reinforcement and reward. Re-examination of the studies of near misses events after classifying the type of game feedback suggested that the effectiveness of near misses is related to the phenomenology of a near miss itself rather than as a response to auditory or visual feedback provided by a slot machine. In contrast to near misses, the presence of LDWs was found to relate to an overestimation of how much a player is actually winning and was consistently viewed as an exciting event. The effect of LDWs appears to be driven by the presence of visuals and sounds most often associated with a true win. Practical implications and directions for future research are also discussed.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10899-017-9688-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cognitive neuroscience can support public health approaches to minimise the harm of ‘losses disguised as wins’ in multiline slot machines

“…Several self-report studies have demonstrated that following a session of play that includes LDWs, players tend to overestimate the frequency of winning outcomes that occurred during the session (Barton et al, 2017). Similarly, when asked to categorise events while playing, players often miscategorise LDWs as true wins (Jensen et al, 2013).…”

“…Research into the design of slot machines, a pervasive and widely familiar subcategory of EGMs, has identified how certain features of modern slot machines, may contribute to the high intensity of this form of gambling. These design features include: the effects of the random ratio reinforcement schedule (Turner & Horbay, ; Haw, ), the speed of play (Harris & Griffiths, ), near‐miss events (Murch & Clark, ; Barton et al ., ), free spins (Taylor et al ., ), or features such as stop buttons that foster an illusion of control (Harrigan et al ., ; Murch & Clark, ). This set of features likely work in tandem to intensify reinforcement and encourage the extended and repeat play that supports gambling revenue (Yücel et al ., ).…”

What can be learned about gambling from a learning perspective? A narrative review

“…Two other phenomena that complicate the consequential side of learning are near misses and losses disguised as wins. These are events where an omission of what is expected to be a reinforcer actually functions as a reinforcer for gambling behavior (Barton et al, 2017;Daly et al, 2014;Foxall & Sigurdsson, 2012). This is a phenomenon that is also highly relevant not only for understanding gambling behavior, but for understanding learning processes in themselves, since it appears to contradict the keystones of learning theory.…”

“…A systematic review by Barton et al (2017) concluded that most studies have shown that near misses motivate continued to play, but that results on the emotional state or betting behavior of the gambler show a more varied pattern. While most studies that included skin-conductance levels reported increased levels, near misses were found aversive events in a majority of studies where valence was rated.…”

“…The latter being an indication of the reinforcing effects. Over a range of studies, sound has been found to be an especially important aspect of the reinforcing properties of LDWs (Barton et al, 2017). Sounds can be used to influence game preference (Dixon et al, 2014), but it has also been found that sounds can effectively be used unmask the disguised losses (Dixon et al, 2015a).…”