The Effect of the External Environment on Bureaucratic Representation: Assessing the Passive to Active Representation Link

Abstract

The literature on the link between passive and active representation is well established, but there is still some debate on why and how passive representation translates into active representation in some settings and not others. Some scholars suggest the salience of the policy issue and discretion to act yields a linkage between passive and active representation, while others contend researchers are simply identifying correlates of the two concepts not linkages. However, many studies miss the dynamic relationship between representation and the external environment, so this research explains the manner in which external, environmental pressures influence bureaucratic discretion and active representation. Interdependences between service organizations and the external environment can restrict bureaucratic discretion through resource dependence and cues of expectations and professional norms, or bureaucrats may use the relationship to enhance their discretion. Using an original dataset of the 1,800 largest U.S. school districts over two school terms, I compare the level of disparity in academic grouping across racial groups in two distinct external environments, racially balanced and imbalanced school districts, and find that minority bureaucrats use their discretion to improve the odds of minority students' assignment to gifted education, but external, environmental control moderates the significance of active representation. The passive to active representation link is weakened based on the operating policy environment. This work offers some insight on the restrictions and limits to active representation, and the empirical findings hold implications for the governance of public organizations and the outcomes of public policies.

Is Representation Enough? Racial Disparities in Levels of Force and Arrests by Police

“…This shared identity may impact bureaucrat behavior by reducing the potential for discriminatory or biased behavior on behalf of the bureaucrat (i.e., active representation). Empirical studies have found that bureaucrats of color use their discretion to implement policies and practices that reduce disparate treatment for people of color (see Capers 2018; Eterno, Barrow, and Silverman 2017; Grissom, Nicholson‐Crotty, and Nicholson‐Crotty 2009; Lim 2006; Nicholson‐Crotty, Grissom, and Nicholson‐Crotty 2011). In doing so, scholars have often conducted studies linking passive and active representation at the aggregate level—mainly exploring it in the context of education.…”

Representation through Lived Experience: Expanding Representative Bureaucracy Theory

“…In the behavioral healthcare system, we found that the link between passive and active representation on the basis of lived experience is neither inherent nor automatic. Managers of behavioral health facilities emphasized the importance of institutional and contextual factors that foster or impede the link between passive and active representation, factors also highlighted in existing research (Capers 2018;Keiser et al 2002;Riccucci & Meyers 2004;Watkins-Hayes 2011;Wilkins & Williams 2008;Wilkins & Williams 2009;Wilkins & Keiser 2004).…”

“…As the United States population has become more diverse, the calls for a public sector that "looks like" America has steadily grown (Elias 2013; Krislov & Rosenbloom 1981;Selden 1997;Sowa & Selden 2003). In addition to the various tangible benefits of a more representative public sector that scholars have identified, a bureaucracy that is broadly representative of its constituency should theoretically be equipped to ameliorate some of the tensions generated by vague public policies or even an unresponsive democratic government (Capers 2018;Long 1952;Kellough 1990a;Kellough 1990b;Sowa & Selden 2003 To date, the substantial corpus of scholarly research into passive (or symbolic) and active (or substantive) representation has focused almost entirely upon the immutable demographic characteristics-identities such as race and ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation-that affect public servants' socialization and participation in government. Underexplored, however, is the extent to which an individual's identity and subsequent participation in bureaucracy can be attributable to their lived experience, or their interactions with an idiosyncratic environment, including those that have formed their worldview and attitudes.…”

Police Use of Force Interactions: Is Race Relevant or Gender Germane?

“…Studies on ethnicity and race are the most prevalent (Bishu & Kennedy, 2019); however, recent studies also highlight the importance of gender. Regarding ethnicity and race, numerous studies conclude that bureaucrats of color use their discretion to implement policies that reduces disparate treatment toward people of color, particularly in light of historical inequities in public bureaucracies (Capers, 2018; Eterno et al, 2017; Grissom et al, 2009; Lim, 2006; Meier & Stewart, 1992; J. Nicholson-Crotty et al, 2011; Selden, 1997).…”