The endocrine system has been studied extensively from physiological, biochemical, and molecular approaches. However, much less attention has concentrated on the psychological aspects associated with these different endocrine diseases, and the necessity of addressing these psychological issues in order to effectively treat endocrine patients. Often, there is a significant impairment in the quality of life when it comes to these different endocrine diseases, and an interdisciplinary approach is needed in order to achieve the best possible outcome for the patient. It is our goal through this review to provide a comprehensive assessment of the psychological implications associated with different endocrine disorders. Specifically, we will address the psychological aspects associated with diabetes, Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, pheochromocytoma, and androgen and estrogen disorders, as well as a brief correlation of transgender adults.
Adrenal: Cushing's Syndrome and Addison's DiseaseOver the past few decades, a number of authors have found a significant amount of psychological disorders associated with Cushing's syndrome. Sonino and Fava [1] found that major depression is a life-threatening complication, which may affect 50-60% of patients with Cushing's syndrome. They found that it occurs in both the pituitary dependent and independent forms of the disease. Kelly et al., [2] found a similar association with 57% of 209 Cushing's syndrome patients having a significant psychiatric illness, usually depression. A follow-up study by Sonino et al.,[3] found that 54% of patients with pituitary-dependent Cushing disease had major depression according to DSM-IV criteria. They observed that the depression in Cushing's syndrome was significantly associated with female gender, older age, higher urinary cortisol levels, a relatively more severe clinical condition, and an absence of a pituitary adenoma. Other authors have also found the same correlation between depression and Cushing's syndrome [1,[4][5][6][7]. While depression is one of the most important psychological symptoms associated with Cushing's syndrome, other symptoms have been noticed. Starkman et al., [8] and Starkman [9] reported that around 66% of their Cushing's syndrome patients experienced generalized anxiety or panic disorders. Sonino et al., [10] also found a significant association between anxiety and Cushing's syndrome. In this same particular study, the authors also saw there was a significant association in their Cushing's syndrome patients with increased irritable mood, higher levels of stress, and lower physical well-being. Mania and hypomania are other psychological symptoms that have been associated with Cushing's syndrome by a number of authors [11,12].There has been a significant debate in the literature whether the psychological symptoms of Cushing's syndrome completely resolve after the remission of the disease. Several studies have found significant improvements or e...