The effect of viscosity on ad libitum food intake

Zijlstra, N.; Mars, Monica; Wijk, René A. de; Westerterp-Plantenga, Margriet S.; Graaf, C. de

doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803776

Cited by 220 publications

(200 citation statements)

References 23 publications

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“…Finally, it may be due to less statistical power due to only 24 subjects in our study compared with 35 subjects in the study of Dove et al (2009). The more pronounced effect of milk on satiation and appetite hormones as compared with regular cola may be due to factors all involved in appetite regulation, such as high protein and fat containment, higher viscosity (Mattes and Rothacker, 2001;Zijlstra et al, 2008), and differences in carbohydrate content (lactose vs sucrose) (Bowen et al, 2006).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 87%

Satiety scores and satiety hormone response after sucrose-sweetened soft drink compared with isocaloric semi-skimmed milk and with non-caloric soft drink: a controlled trial

Belza²,

et al. 2012

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Background/Objectives: Observational studies indicate that sugar-sweetened soft drinks (SSSD) may promote obesity, among other factors, owing to low-satiating effects. The effect of energy in drinks on appetite is still unclear. We examined the effect of two isocaloric, but macronutrient, different beverages (SSSD versus semi-skimmed milk) and two non-energy-containing beverages (aspartame-sweetened soft drink (ASSD) and water) on appetite, appetite-regulating hormones and energy intake (EI). Subjects/Methods: In all, 24 obese individuals were included in a crossover trial. Each subject was served either 500 ml of SSSD (regular cola: 900 kJ), semi-skimmed milk (950 kJ), ASSD (diet cola: 7.5 kJ), or water. Subjective appetite scores, ghrelin, GLP-1, and GIP concentrations were measured at baseline and continuously 4-h post intake. Ad libitum EI was measured 4 h after intake of the test drinks. Results: Milk induced greater subjective fullness and less hunger than regular cola (Po0.05). Also, milk led to 31% higher GLP-1 (95% CI: 20, 44; Po0.01) and 45% higher GIP (95% CI: 23, 72; Po0.01) concentrations compared with SSSD. Ghrelin was equally 20% lower after milk and SSSD compared with water. The total EI (ad libitum EI þ EI from the drink) was higher after the energy-containing drinks compared with diet cola and water (Po0.01). Conclusions: Milk increased appetite scores and GLP-1 and GIP responses compared with SSSD. The energy containing beverages were not compensated by decreased EI at the following meal, emphasizing the risk of generating a positive energy balance by consuming energy containing beverages. Furthermore, there were no indications of ASSD increased appetite or EI compared with water.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 87%

Satiety scores and satiety hormone response after sucrose-sweetened soft drink compared with isocaloric semi-skimmed milk and with non-caloric soft drink: a controlled trial

Belza²,

et al. 2012

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“…In a first within-subjects cross-over study in a cinema setting 108 subjects consumed ad libitum a liquid (milk) or semi-solid (custard) chocolate dairy product which were equal in palatability, energy density and macronutrient composition (42) . Subjects consumed the products with a broad straw (1 .…”

Section: Sensory and Metabolic Signals Involved In Eating Behaviourmentioning

confidence: 99%

Why liquid energy results in overconsumption

Graaf

2011

Proc. Nutr. Soc.

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Liquids have been shown to have a low satiating efficiency. The may be related to the high rate of consumption for liquids which may be higher than 200 g/min. In a number of studies, we showed that the positive relationship between eating rate and energy intake is mediated by oro-sensory exposure time. Longer sensory exposure times are consistently associated with lower food intakes. This observation maybe linked to the role of cephalic phase responses to foods. Cephalic phase responses are a set of physiological responses, which are conceived to prepare the digestive system for the incoming flow of nutrients after ingestion, with the aim of maintaining homeostasis. Results from various studies suggest that cephalic phase responses are much smaller (absent) for liquids compared to solids. It is hypothesised that the absence of cephalic phase responses to liquid foods may be one of the causes why liquid energies enter the body undetected and lead to weak energy intake compensation. This idea fits with the concept of the taste system as a nutrient-sensing system that informs the brain and the gastro-intestinal system about what is coming into our body. With liquids, this system is bypassed. Slower eating may help the human body to associate the sensory signals from food with their metabolic consequences. Foods that are eaten quickly may impair this association, and may therefore lead to overconsumption of energy, and ultimately to weight gain. Appetite: Liquid energy: Obesity: Energy intakeIn the last few decades it has become clear that the high prevalence of obesity in developing countries is a normal behavioural response to an abnormal obesogenic environment. This obesogenic environment facilitates food (energy) intake and limits energy expenditure. Recent evidence suggests that changes in energy intake are the dominant factors in increasing prevalence of obesity since the 1980s (1,2) . Frequent exposure to food cues, large portion sizes, large available variety, high energy density and high palatability of foods are implicated in this respect (3) . This paper focuses on one additional element of our food supply and our eating environment, i.e. the high eating rate at which we can ingest a vast majority of foods in our current food supply. It is hypothesised that the high eating rate undermines our body's capacity to regulate energy intake at healthy levels. This may work by impairing the congruent relationship between sensory input and metabolic consequences. The physiological background for this may be that foods that are consumed quickly like liquids do not lead to functional cephalic phase responses (CPR). CPR are the predominantly learned physiological responses to the sensory signals from food. Before focusing on the role of eating rate in the regulation of food intake, we first discuss a simple psycho-biological model of eating behaviour that helps to explain the later reasoning in this paper.Sensory and metabolic signals involved in eating behaviour Fig. 1 illustrates how eating behaviour is guided by s...

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“…Because of their fluid nature, beverages require less oral processing time than semi-solid and solid caloric equivalents and as a result they are consumed fairly quickly, minimising oro-sensory exposure [12]. Although increasing oral processing time may not necessarily lead to a reduction in the amount of a food that is consumed [13], orosensory exposure is important for the development of satiety [14,15]: the thought, sight, smell and taste of food trigger a cascade of anticipatory salivary and gastrointestinal responses, which improve the efficiency of nutrient processing and enhance the experience of satiety [16][17][18][19].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Subtle changes in the flavour and texture of a drink enhance expectations of satiety

McCrickerd

Chambers

Brunstrom

et al. 2012

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Background: The consumption of liquid calories has been implicated in the development of obesity and weight gain. Energy-containing drinks are often reported to have a weak satiety value: one explanation for this is that because of their fluid texture they are not expected to have much nutritional value. It is important to consider what features of these drinks can be manipulated to enhance their expected satiety value. Two studies investigated the perception of subtle changes in a drink's viscosity, and the extent to which thick texture and creamy flavour contribute to the generation of satiety expectations. Participants in the first study rated the sensory characteristics of 16 fruit yogurt drinks of increasing viscosity. In study two, a new set of participants evaluated eight versions of the fruit yogurt drink, which varied in thick texture, creamy flavour and energy content, for sensory and hedonic characteristics and satiety expectations.

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The effect of viscosity on ad libitum food intake

Cited by 220 publications

References 23 publications

Satiety scores and satiety hormone response after sucrose-sweetened soft drink compared with isocaloric semi-skimmed milk and with non-caloric soft drink: a controlled trial

Satiety scores and satiety hormone response after sucrose-sweetened soft drink compared with isocaloric semi-skimmed milk and with non-caloric soft drink: a controlled trial

Why liquid energy results in overconsumption

Subtle changes in the flavour and texture of a drink enhance expectations of satiety

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