The effects of female sexual steroids on gastric function and barrier resistance of gastrointestinal tract following traumatic brain injury

Abstract

Aim:The aim was to assess the alteration of gastric function and barrier function of gastrointestinal (GI) tract following diffuse brain injury in varying ovarian hormone status.Materials and Methods:Diffuse traumatic brain injury (TBI) was induced by Marmarou method. Rats were randomly assigned into 10 groups: Intact, sham + ovariectomized female (OVX), TBI, TBI + OVX, vehicle, estradiol (E2), progesterone (P), E2 + P, estrogen receptor alpha agonist and estrogen receptor beta agonist (DPN). Endotoxin levels were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. All the parameters were measured 5 days after TBI.Results:Intragastric pressure was significantly decreased in TBI as compared to the intact group (P < 0.001) and this was lower in TBI group versus TBI + OVX group (P < 0.05). Pretreatment with steroid hormones and their agonists did not have any effect on the gastric pressure compared to TBI + OVX or vehicle groups. Inflammation, congestion, ulcer and erosion were seen in the TBI rats. All treatment groups worsen the tissue condition so that the presence of thrombosis also was seen. The trauma induction did not have any effect on the serum and intestinal endotoxin levels. DPN had caused a significant reduction in serum levels of endotoxin compared with OVX + TBI group (P < 0.05).Conclusion:Pretreatment with sexual steroids is not useful in the treatment of GI dysfunction induced by TBI. The treatment with all sexual female hormones worsens the gastric tissue condition. Furthermore, the applied weight was not enough for releasing of endotoxin. It seems that estrogen reduced the endotoxin levels by estrogen beta receptor.

Medicinal plants in traumatic brain injury: Neuroprotective mechanisms revisited

“…Genetic factors are also associated with the pathophysiology of TBI. In addition, myelin and multifocal axonal abnormalities are also attributed to posttraumatic cognitive impairments …”

Traumatic Brain Injury and the Gastrointestinal Tract: The Role of Female Sexual Hormones

“…Gastric pepsin levels were considerably lower in E2 alone and E2 and P4-treated rats as compared to vehicle-treated group. These results suggest that the possible protective effect of estradiol and E2-P4 combination against mucosal injury after TBI might be mediated by inhibition of pepsin secretion [63].…”

“…It seems that estrogen re-TBI and GI Tract J Endocrinol Metab. 2017;7(6):163-171 duced endotoxin levels via estrogen beta receptor [74]. The role of gonadal hormones, in symptomatology and pathophysiology of IBS is being recognized based on the female predominance as well as the relation between IBS symptoms and hormonal status during menstrual cycle phases, pregnancy or menopause [75].…”

“…Moreover, a growing number of clinical and experimental studies strongly support the crucial role of sex hormones in the regulative mechanisms of the brain-gut-microbiota axis involved in the pathophysiology of IBS. Sex hormones may influence on the peripheral and central regulatory mechanisms such as contributing the alterations in stress reaction, visceral sensitivity and motility, intestinal barrier function, and immune activation of intestinal mucosa [63].…”

“…The results of a study done by Khaksari et al have shown that progesterone has no effect on intestinal cytokines, and when used in combination with estradiol, the effect of estradiol was also eliminated. They concluded that progesterone may interfere with the action of estrogen on the levels of intestinal cytokines [74].…”