“…There are diverse case studies that provide empirical evidence to demonstrate that web-based mapping tools could help university students develop their spatial thinking skills, provided that the tools are designed and implemented appropriately in the classroom (Hou, Yu, Wu, Sung, & Chang, 2014;Jo et al, 2016;Kim & Bednarz, 2014;Lee & Bednarz, 2009;Qiu, 2006). A suite of factors in the web-based mapping environment accounts for spatial skill development (Favier & van der Schee, 2014), for instance, the degree of scaffolding embedded in the instruction, the design features of the learning environments, and students' prior knowledge (Bodzin, 2011;Xiang & Liu, 2017). In particular, individual characteristic is one of many variables that contribute to shaping the learning outcomes in a technology-based learning environment (Salzman, Dede, Loftin, & Chen, 1999).…”