The Effects of Sex-Typing Schemas on Young Children's Memory

Martin, Carol Lynn; Halverson, Charles F.

doi:10.2307/1130043

Cited by 132 publications

(69 citation statements)

References 31 publications

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“…Perhaps, individuals distort their perceptions and memory of emotions to conform to gender stereotypes. Developmental researchers have found that children frequently distort gender-inconsistent information (e.g., a picture of a man in the kitchen) to gender-consistent information (e.g., a picture of a woman in the kitchen) on memory tasks (Bigler & Liben, 1990Levy & Fivush, 1993;Martin & Halverson, 1983;Welch-Ross & Schmidt, 1996). Similar processes may contribute to stereotypes about gender and emotionality.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sadness, Anger, and Frustration: Gendered Patterns in Early Adolescents’ and Their Parents’ Emotion Talk

Aldrich

Tenenbaum

2006

Sex Roles

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The present study was designed to investigate gender patterns in early adolescents' and their parents' verbal expression of three gender-stereotyped emotions: anger, sadness, and frustration. Parents and their early adolescent children discussed four interpersonal dilemmas and answered questions regarding those dilemmas in mother-child and father-child dyads. Consistent with previous literature regarding gender stereotypes in emotion expression, daughters used a higher frequency of emotion words than sons did during conversations with their mothers and fathers. Additional analyses regarding the three specific emotions under investigation, however, revealed findings that were inconsistent with conventional gender stereotypes. Contrary to expectations, in conversations with fathers, sons used a higher proportion of references to sadness than did daughters. Daughters used a higher proportion of references to frustration than did sons in their conversations with both mothers and fathers. Mothers and fathers used a higher proportion of references to frustration with daughters than with sons. No gender differences were found in parents' or children's references to anger. The results call into question culturally accepted gender stereotypes about sadness, anger, and frustration.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sadness, Anger, and Frustration: Gendered Patterns in Early Adolescents’ and Their Parents’ Emotion Talk

Aldrich

Tenenbaum

2006

Sex Roles

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“…The cognitive process of assimilation allows schemas to assist in interpreting information from the environment. For instance, new information can be given meaning, missing information can be supplied, and even existing information can be distorted to make it become consistent with existing schemas (e.g., Martin and Halverson 1983). Behavioral changes also enhance schematic consistency; children are able to approach activities they believe fit their schemas while avoiding activities that are not consistent with their gender schemas (Martin 2000;Martin and Halverson 1981).…”

Section: The Traditional View: Gender-differentiated Behaviors Promotmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Children may use their gender cognitions to "fill in the gaps" in their knowledge, that is, by making assumptions that they share more in common with same-gender peers than they have actually experienced with them. Furthermore, this approach suggests that children will distort or alter memory of the peer's behavior if it does not fit expectations (Bigler and Liben 2006;Martin and Halverson 1983). These issues provide innovative ways to think about the role of gender in peer relationships, and provide testable hypotheses that are worth pursuing.…”

Section: Theoretical Significancementioning

confidence: 99%

Experienced and Expected Similarity to Same-Gender Peers: Moving Toward a Comprehensive Model of Gender Segregation

et al. 2011

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Gender segregation is often explained by children being interested in interacting with other children who behave similarly to themselves. Children's beliefs about girls and boys (i.e., their gender cognitions) may also play a role in gender segregation, but this idea has received little attention. In this study, we proposed a model of gender segregation that included similarity on gender-typed behavioral qualities (e.g., rough and tumble play) and gender cognitions concerning perceived similarity to same-gender others, and we assessed whether this more comprehensive heuristic model predicted observed peer interactions in young U.S. children (n=74; M age = 51 m; middle-class families). A multi-method design was employed including observations of behavior and child reports of gender cognitions. Support was found for the linkages proposed in this comprehensive model for boys; partial support was found for girls. Specifically, the inclusion of gender cognitions was supported for both genders: gender cognitions about perceived similarity related to interactional partner choices for both girls and boys, and accounted for variance in observed partner choices even after behavioral similarity was included in the model. The traditional link concerning behavioral similarity on rough-and-tumble play predicted boys' but not girls' interactions. The findings extend knowledge about the role of social cognitions in social behavior, and are consistent with ideas proposed by gender schema theory and other constructivist theories.

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“…There has been little work on consequences of gender attitudes and stereotypes, and most of it was conducted on children and focused on outcomes other than psychosocial adjustment. For example, children who held genderstereotyped beliefs had limited interests and skills and difficulty remembering events inconsistent with their beliefs (Bigler & Liben, 1990;Bussey & Bandura, 1992;Martin & Halverson, 1983).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Benefits and Drawbacks of Gender Typing: How Different Dimensions are Related to Psychological Adjustment

DiDonato

Berenbaum

2010

Arch Sex Behav

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The benefits versus costs of gender typing are not clear: Is adjustment optimal when people identify and act in strongly gendered ways or when they embrace characteristics of both sexes? Previous findings are inconsistent, in part because they are derived from different conceptualizations of gender typing. A comprehensive understanding of the mental health consequences of gender typing requires recognition of the multidimensionality of gender typing and simultaneous consideration of these dimensions. On the basis of previous work on individual measures, we hypothesized that adjustment would be differentially associated with different aspects of gender typing: positively with sex-congruent gender identity and male-typed personality traits, negatively with rigid gender attitudes, and minimally with female-typed personality traits and gender-typed activity interests. Structural equation models were used to enable testing of all associations simultaneously. Results from a sample of 401 undergraduate students supported our hypotheses. For both women and men, adjustment was positively associated with gender-congruent identity, instrumentality, and flexible gender attitudes, and minimally related to activity interests and expressivity. These findings clarify the mental health benefits and costs of gender typing and highlight the multidimensionality of gender typing.

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The Effects of Sex-Typing Schemas on Young Children's Memory

Cited by 132 publications

References 31 publications

Sadness, Anger, and Frustration: Gendered Patterns in Early Adolescents’ and Their Parents’ Emotion Talk

Sadness, Anger, and Frustration: Gendered Patterns in Early Adolescents’ and Their Parents’ Emotion Talk

Experienced and Expected Similarity to Same-Gender Peers: Moving Toward a Comprehensive Model of Gender Segregation

The Benefits and Drawbacks of Gender Typing: How Different Dimensions are Related to Psychological Adjustment

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