The effects of tests on learning and forgetting

Distributed Practice and Retrieval Practice in Primary School Vocabulary Learning: A Multi‐classroom Study

“…The testing effect is the phenomenon that retrieval practice leads to better long-term retention than additional study (for reviews see e.g., Rawson & Dunlosky, 2011;Roediger & Butler, 2011;Roediger, Putnam, & Smith, 2011;Roediger & Karpicke, 2006;Rowland, 2014). As in the studies conducted on distributed practice, most experiments on retrieval practice have been conducted using word lists or word pairs (e.g., Bouwmeester & Verkoeijen, 2011;Carpenter, Pashler, & Vul, 2006;Carpenter, Pashler, Wixted, & Vul, 2008;Toppino & Cohen, 2009;Tulving, 1967;Wheeler, Ewers, & Buonanno, 2003) and foreign vocabulary pairs (e.g., Carpenter et al, 2008;Carrier & Pashler, 1992;Fritz, Morris, Acton, Voelkel, & Etkind, 2007;Karpicke, 2009;Karpicke & Roediger, 2008;Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2005;Pyc & Rawson, 2007Toppino & Cohen, 2009). Some studies have found a beneficial effect of retrieval practice for first language vocabulary learning, with adults (e.g., Cull, 2000;Karpicke & Smith, 2012), as well as with primary school children (e.g., Goossens, Camp, Verkoeijen, Tabbers, & Zwaan, 2014;Metcalfe, Kornell, & Son, 2007).…”

Does Overt memory testing lead to better learning than Covert memory testing?

“…More specifically, subjects explicitly retrieve the items by writing down their responses, alternatively saying them out loud. Covert retrieval on the other hand is less used in studies of the testing effect (e.g., Carpenter et al, 2006;Carpenter & Pashler, 2007;Carpenter, Pashler, Wixted &Vul, 2008). This procedure shares much with the Overt retrieval procedure because the students are explicitly instructed to test memory, but they are not asked or allowed to output their responses in any way (e.g., by writing it down or saying it aloud).…”

“…Although no direct comparison has been made between the two procedures, some few studies have used a Covert procedure (e.g., Carpenter, Pashler & Vul, 2006;Carpenter & Pashler, 2007;Carpenter et al, 2008). For example, Carpenter and Pashler (2007) examined whether Covert testing can enhance learning of visuospatial information in maps.…”

“…Further, a probable reason why the act of tests may be beneficial could be the fact that they reveal which items have been learned and which ones that have not been learned and require more studying. More correctly, when subjects try to recall an item and fail, they may find a new way of encoding the material in subsequent study opportunity (Carpenter et al, 2008).…”

“…Consequently the subjects in the test/study trials produced higher final test accuracy. Later on, Carpenter et al, (2008) investigated whether memory tests enhance learning and reduce forgetting more than additional study opportunities do, using Covert retrieval attempts. Subjects learned obscure facts or Swahili-English word pairs by either receiving additional study chance (study) or completing a test (test/study).…”