The energy cost of gestation in white-tailed deer

Abstract

Gestation in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) of northern regions occurs throughout winter, when foragequantity and quality are limited. Our objective was to measure the energy cost of gestation during winter and spring in order todetermine its impact on energy balance of deer. We used indirect respiration calorimetry to measure the metabolism of 21pregnant deer every 2–4 weeks during gestation (January–May). Fasting metabolic rates (FMR) were used to develop apredictive equation to evaluate temporal energy costs. A measurable increase in metabolism occurred on day 91 of gestation.FMR (kJ/kg body mass (BM)0.75 per day) of pregnant deer rose curvilinearly (FMR = 0.02(days)2 – 3.261(days) + 465.2), with92.2% of the increase occurring in the third trimester; costs were 45% greater in the last trimester for pregnant than fornonpregnant deer. Peak FMR of pregnant deer at 200 days gestation was 617 kJ/kg BM 0.75 per day, 84% above that ofnonpregnant deer (335 kJ/kg BM 0.75 per day). The total energy cost of gestation, in terms of FMR, was 78 004 kJ/kg BM 0.75 per200 days, a 16.4% increase above that of nonpregnant deer. The temporal increase in energy costs was correlated with springgreen-up, indicating important relationships between energy demands, food quality and availability, spring weather, andphysiological adaptations in deer.

Characteristics of white-tailed deer visits to cattle farms: implications for disease transmission at the wildlife–livestock interface

“…Seasonal visits appear to correspond to increasing protein and metabolizable energy intake of pregnant female deer in the third trimester of gestation (Moen 1978;Pekins et al 1998;Parker et al 1999). Substantial energy costs are associated with gestation, particularly the third trimester when 82 % of fetal growth occurs (Armstrong 1950); and it is plausible that this contributes to visitation.…”

Timing of seasonal migration in mule deer: effects of climate, plant phenology, and life-history characteristics

“…4). Nutritional demands of pregnant females increase throughout gestation, with most fetal growth (.90%) occurring during the last one-third of gestation (Moen 1978, Robbins and Robbins 1979, Pekins et al 1998. Inadequate nutrition during gestation may result in fetal loss (Verme 1965), low birth weight and reduced probability of survival of young (Keech et al 2000, Lomas and, and life-long consequences on the physical characteristics and quality of the individual (Hamel et al 2009, Monteith et al 2009).…”

El Gasto Energético del Venado Cola Blanca (Odocoileus Virginianus Texanus) en Relación a La Precipitación en una Zona Semiárida de México

“…Para las hembras de venado cola blanca el último tercio de la gestación (que en este caso coincide con la época seca) es el de mayor metabolismo energético (Kroll 1992). Según Pekins et al (1998) el requerimiento de energía durante esta etapa es 30 a 45% superior a las necesidades de mantenimiento, y así también los requerimientos energéticos durante la lactancia pueden alcanzar 2.3 veces la tasa metabólica basal (Wallmo 1981). Mientras que para los venados machos, es la época de apareamiento la que implica un aumento en el gasto energético, ya que tienen que defender a las hembras en estro, contra otros machos, para asegurar su descendencia.…”

“…El comportamiento es importante porque voluntariamente el venado en general, puede evitar circunstancias desagradables del ambiente, como el intenso calor o el frío y los vientos (Wallmo 1981). Estos cambios conductuales se han estudiado también en el matorral xerófilo del Noreste de México (Bello et al 1996, 1998, 2001, 2003a, 2003b, 2004, Corona-Zárate 1999, Delfín et al 1998, Gallina et al 1998, Gallina y Bello 2002, Gallina et al 2003.…”