The Epidermis and its Keratinisation in the African Elephant (<i>Loxodonta Africana</i>)

Spearman, R. I. C.

doi:10.1080/00445096.1970.11447400

Cited by 29 publications

(23 citation statements)

References 9 publications

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“…Thus, evaporative cooling may in fact be obligatory above a threshold air temperature depending upon activity state and climatic conditions. Despite lacking sweat glands (Horstmann, 1966;Smith, 1890;Spearman, 1970), elephants do have significant rates of insensible water loss across the skin (Wright and Luck, 1984), a result of a relatively high integumental permeability relative to other animals (Dunkin, 2012). Therefore, water-dependent thermoregulation has the potential to be a critical driver of differential landscape use across populations from the diverse climate regions inhabited by elephants.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Climate influences thermal balance and water use in African and Asian elephants: physiology can predict drivers of elephant distribution

Dunkin

Wilson²,

Way³

et al. 2013

Journal of Experimental Biology

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SUMMARYElephant movement patterns in relation to surface water demonstrate that they are a water-dependent species. Thus, there has been interest in using surface water management to mitigate problems associated with localized elephant overabundance. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying the elephant's water dependence remain unclear. Although thermoregulation is likely an important driver, the relationship between thermoregulation, water use and climate has not been quantified. We measured skin surface temperature of and cutaneous water loss from 13 elephants (seven African, 3768±642kg; six Asian, 3834±498kg) and determined the contribution of evaporative cooling to their thermal and water budgets across a range of air temperatures (8-33°C). We also measured respiratory evaporative water loss and resting metabolic heat production on a subset of elephants (N=7). The rate of cutaneous evaporative water loss ranged between 0.31 and 8.9gmin m −2 for African elephants. Simulated thermal and water budgets using climate data from Port Elizabeth, South Africa, and Okaukuejo, Namibia, suggested that the 24-h evaporative cooling water debt incurred in warm climates can be more than 4.5 times that incurred in mesic climates. This study confirms elephants are obligate evaporative coolers but suggests that classification of elephants as water dependent is insufficient given the importance of climate in determining the magnitude of this dependence. These data highlight the potential for a physiological modeling approach to predicting the utility of surface water management for specific populations. Supplementary material available online at

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Climate influences thermal balance and water use in African and Asian elephants: physiology can predict drivers of elephant distribution

Dunkin

Wilson²,

Way³

et al. 2013

Journal of Experimental Biology

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“…Zool. 1984, 19(4) TIlt stratum corneum varies in thick~ a...eraging 60 ~m on the flank (Spearman 1970), )20 ~m on the anterior ear and 500 ~m on the trunk (Luck & Wright 1964). This thick horny Layer over~es an arrangement of primary and secondary dennaJ papillae (Smith 1890) similar to papillae in hippopm.amus..…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Do elephants need to sweat?

Wright

Luck²

1984

South African Journal of Zoology

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An adequate rate of evaporative water loss is considered es• sential for the maintenance of thermal balance in the elephant in warm climatic conditions. Histological studies have failed to reveal the existence of sweat glands in elephant skin. Trans• epidermal water•loss rate has been measured and shown to be sufficiently high for possible thermal needs. The structure of elephant skin and the behaviour of elephants are seen to con• tribute towards maintaining skin permeability and the necessary level of transepidermal water loss.

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“…The large size and nearly hairless condition of elephants confer unusual problems related to heat balance and dehydration of the integument. Elephants lack sweat glands or sebaceous glands, and the stratum corneum of their integument is thick (Luck & Wright, 1964;Spearman, 1970). Consequently, these mammals cannot sweat and rates of transepidermal water loss may be comparatively low (Hattingh, 1972; but see Wright & Luck, 1984).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Sweat and sebum normally help to keep the stratum corneum of other mammals moist and flexible (Blank, 1952;Kligman, 1963). Because elephants have no physiological provision for such lubrication, individuals in captivity require their skin to be wetted regularly (Spearman, 1970). Wild elephants bathe daily if they have access to water or, if not, they often coat their backs with mud (Walker, 1968;McKay, 1973;PochC, 1980).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Surface sculpturing and water retention of elephant skin

LlLLYWHITE

Stein

1987

Journal of Zoology

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With 1 plate in the text)The integument of elephants is highly sculptured with wrinkles and crevices arranged in prominent geometric patterns. These features are shown to adsorb water and to facilitate its movement over the body surface. The retention of water attributable to epidermal morphology was quantified by studying latex casts of integumentary surfaces. Retention of water by casts of integument is 4.5 to 10 times greater than that of flat surfaces and is greater in African elephants than in Asian elephants. Both species lack sebum and sweat glands and require regular wetting of their skin. However, the skin of African elephants is sculptured more deeply and retains significantly more water than does that of Asian elephants adapted to more mesic habitats. We propose that the highly sculptured morphology functions to enhance retention of surface moisture during periodic wallowing, thereby impeding dehydration of the exposed epidermis and mediating evaporative heat losses. These functions could have great physiological significance during periods of drought when intense heat and solar radiation coincide with limited availability of water.

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The Epidermis and its Keratinisation in the African Elephant (Loxodonta Africana)

Cited by 29 publications

References 9 publications

Climate influences thermal balance and water use in African and Asian elephants: physiology can predict drivers of elephant distribution

Climate influences thermal balance and water use in African and Asian elephants: physiology can predict drivers of elephant distribution

Do elephants need to sweat?

Surface sculpturing and water retention of elephant skin

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