The evolution and social determinants of mental health during the first wave of the COVID-19 outbreak in Luxembourg

Abstract

Studies have been showing a negative impact of pandemic control measures on mental health. However, few studies assessed these effects longitudinally during the peak of the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The goals of this study were to explore whether differential effects of COVID-19 restrictions on mental health could be observed by sex and age in a Luxembourgish nationally representative sample during the initial outbreak of COVID-19. Furthermore, we aimed to assess whether there are differences in risk and protective factors longitudinally at two assessment times. A total of 1,756 respondents aged 18 years and older (50.74% women) reported sociodemographic and socio-economic characteristics, depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness. Women and younger respondents reported higher rates of severe depression and anxiety symptoms, suggesting higher vulnerability to the pandemic control measures. This study contributes to the investigation of mental health consequences of the pandemic and the pandemic control measures, particularly related to shifts in care task responsibilities, gender and socio-economic inequalities, as well as younger groups' uncertainty about the future.

The Moderating Role of Resilience in the Personality-Mental Health Relationship During the COVID-19 Pandemic

“…Younger respondents presented higher scores on depression and anxiety scales as well as higher feelings of loneliness and perceived stress than other age groups in the CON-VINCE study ( 12 ) in line with earlier studies ( 3 , 16 ). Testing the association of personality with mental health, personality traits were associated with mental health outcomes independent of age and other socio-demographic confounders.…”

“…For instance, a systematic review carried out by Xiong et al ( 11 ) showed that female sex, lower education, being single, unemployment, and increased exposure to social media were the most common risk factors for poorer mental health. Similarly, as shown before higher-educated participants were less likely to present depression and anxiety symptoms than respondents with no formal educational degree ( 12 ). In fact, education seems to be a protective factor as it influences income and professional status ( 13 ).…”

“…Even though older adults are considered a high-risk group for COVID-19, and that several studies indicated that social disconnection and distancing put older adults at a greater risk for mental health problems ( 18 , 19 ), the pandemic seems to have a greater impact on younger adults ( 20 , 21 ). Symptoms of anxiety and depression are more present in younger adults compared to older adults in the longitudinal follow-up ( 12 ). It is possible that, due to less developed coping skills, young adults have more difficulties in coping with the current situation than older adults ( 22 ).…”

COVID-19, Economic Impact, Mental Health, and Coping Behaviors: A Conceptual Framework and Future Research Directions

“…Age is one factor. Young people are more likely to have a higher level of anxiety and stress due to the pandemic and corresponding intervention measures than the elderly ( Mann et al, 2020 ; Salameh et al, 2020 ; Hu and Qian, 2021 ; Ribeiro et al, 2021 ). Young people with mental health problems are especially likely to experience adverse health, well-being, and employment outcomes with long-term consequences ( Bauer et al, 2021 ).…”

Symptoms of distress among young Danes during the national lockdown in May 2020

“…The emergent evidence of mental health consequences under the COVID-19 pandemic/lockdown indicate that being young is associated with increased mental distress [ 5 , 6 ] and the highest levels of depression and anxiety has been found among the youngest adults [ 7 , 8 ], and the oldest children [ 9 ]. Further, studies have shown that females find the pandemic more psychologically challenging than males [ 5 , 7 , 9 – 11 ], and that mental health disorders, physical illness, and low socio economic position is associated with poor mental health during the pandemic lockdown [ 9 , 11 – 16 ].…”