The evolution of economic and political inequality: minding the gap

Abstract

The extent of economic and political inequality, their change over time, and the forces shaping them have profound implications for the sustainability of a society and the well-being of its members. Here we review the evolution of economic and political inequality broadly, though with particular attention to Europe and the USA. We describe legal/institutional, technological and social forces that have shaped this evolution. We highlight the cumulative effects of inequality across generations as channelled through wealth and inheritance but also through other intergenerational connections. We also review the state of research on the effects of inequality on economic growth, health and societal cohesion. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Evolutionary ecology of inequality’.

Toward an evolutionary ecology of (in)equality

“…The association between hierarchy and health is evident for many social mammals, from primates [79] and carnivores [80] to ground squirrels [81]. In human societies, this pattern is well documented for modern, large-scale societies [25,82]. For small-scale societies, the evidence is mixed (cf.…”

“…Factors facilitating or impeding wealth inheritance can play a prominent role in shaping inequality for both humans [ 4 , 25 , 26 ] and non-humans [ 5 , 7 ]. Although any of the three forms of wealth noted above can be transmitted to descendants, material forms are generally more successfully inherited.…”

“…Others adopt a narrower meaning that refers to a set of explicit roles assigned to individuals and the rules governing their behaviour (cf. [ 25 , 34 ]). Most would agree that the term covers both formal institutions such as legal rules and procedures, inheritance systems, political offices (and their rules of succession), marriage rules, economic regulations, and class- and caste-based systems, as well as various informal practices or norms.…”

Impact of Socioeconomic Factors on Academic Performance A Gender-Based Study among University Students

“…Socioeconomic status (SES) is a term that describes an individual's position in society based on aspects such as their family's wealth, political influence, educational setting, and professional reputation (Hossain et al, 2022;Parsons et al, 2001). It refers to the overall measure of an individual or family's financial and social status in relation to others, considering their income and occupation (Carlisle & Maloney, 2023). Previous research has found substantial evidence supporting a direct correlation between a family's socioeconomic level and individuals' academic performance (Caro et al, 2009).…”