The evolution of mutualism

Leigh, Egbert Giles

doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02114.x

Cited by 196 publications

(196 citation statements)

References 226 publications

(429 reference statements)

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“…Commensalism and parasitism provide benefits for only one party, whereas mutualism is an association providing benefits for both partners (Leung and Poulin, 2008;Stat et al, 2008;Sherratt and Wilkinson, 2009;Leigh, 2010). The survival of many organisms in nature depends on the symbiotic relationship that different species are able to form and maintain with each other.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Trait-Based Model for Describing the Adaptive Dynamics of Coral-Algae Symbiosis

2017

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The survival of many ecological communities relies on the symbiotic relationships formed by various organisms. An example of a symbiotic association that is often described as mutualistic is the one between corals and algae. Since the algae are located within coral epidermis, they are referred to as "endosymbiont" (more generally "symbiont") whereas the corals are referred to as "host." This association is based on the exchange of photosynthetically fixed carbon from algae to corals and inorganic nutrients, acquired from animal waste metabolites or directly from seawater, from corals to algae. The evolution of this symbiotic relationship has enabled the emergence of highly productive and diverse coral reef ecosystems in nutrient-poor waters of the tropical oceans. Here we present an adaptive, trait-based model that describes the temporal dynamics of this association. Given that corals control the flux of inorganic nutrients to the algae, we focus on the adaptation of a hypothetical trait expressed by the coral population: investment of energy in the symbiotic relationship. Investment of energy produces losses for the corals that reflect costs for algal photosynthetic efficiency and for sustaining and maintaining the symbiont population. The fitness of the coral is modeled as the net benefit obtained by the symbiotic association. The model features a decrease in the fraction of energy invested by the corals with increasing symbiont to host biomass ratio. Our sensitivity analyses show that the best conditions for the survival of the simulated coral-algae community occur for a broad range of symbiont to host biomass ratio if the costs of symbiosis are low. With increasing costs, the survival region narrows down to a smaller range of symbiont to host biomass ratio. Finally, a break down of the symbiotic relationship and a consequent collapse of the coral-algae system occur under shock changes in algal abundance.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Trait-Based Model for Describing the Adaptive Dynamics of Coral-Algae Symbiosis

2017

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“…O bligate interspecific mutualisms have often produced synergistic co-adaptations that allowed them to use previously inaccessible resources 1,2 . To evolve higher levels of cooperative integration, such mutualistic codependencies need to remain bilaterally stable over long time spans, a restrictive condition that is far from always fulfilled 3,4 .…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Interspecific mutualisms may also represent different levels of integration. Many symbioses can be defined as ectosymbioses where partners have retained independent sexual reproduction in a fairly symmetrical way as, for example, many lichens, specialized pollination interactions and some mycorrhizal-plant symbioses 2,5 . Others are endosymbioses and have almost, per definition, asymmetrical reproduction, with one partner being dependent on the other.…”

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confidence: 99%

Symbiotic adaptations in the fungal cultivar of leaf-cutting ants

2014

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Centuries of artificial selection have dramatically improved the yield of human agriculture; however, strong directional selection also occurs in natural symbiotic interactions. Fungusgrowing attine ants cultivate basidiomycete fungi for food. One cultivar lineage has evolved inflated hyphal tips (gongylidia) that grow in bundles called staphylae, to specifically feed the ants. Here we show extensive regulation and molecular signals of adaptive evolution in gene trancripts associated with gongylidia biosynthesis, morphogenesis and enzymatic plant cell wall degradation in the leaf-cutting ant cultivar Leucoagaricus gongylophorus. Comparative analysis of staphylae growth morphology and transcriptome-wide expressional and nucleotide divergence indicate that gongylidia provide leaf-cutting ants with essential amino acids and plant-degrading enzymes, and that they may have done so for 20-25 million years without much evolutionary change. These molecular traits and signatures of selection imply that staphylae are highly advanced coevolutionary organs that play pivotal roles in the mutualism between leaf-cutting ants and their fungal cultivars.

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“…However, some studies have proposed that mutualisms should be viewed as a cost-benefit balance model, in which the interaction lasts as long as the benefits exceed the costs to at least one of the two species (Bronstein 1994;Sachs et al 2004;Leigh 2010). The stability of the cost-benefit balance model depends on changes in the abiotic/biotic environment surrounding participating species; consequently, mutualisms could dissolve conditionally (Bronstein 1994;Herre et al 1999).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Costs and constraints in aphid‐ant mutualism

Yao

2014

Ecological Research

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While many studies have demonstrated that ants provide beneficial services to aphids, Bristow (Antplant interactions, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 104-119, 1991) first questioned why so few aphid species are ant-attended. Phylogenetic trees have demonstrated multiple gains and loss of ant-attendance in the course of aphid-ant interactions, implying that mutualisms easily form and dissolve. Several studies have reported the factors that influence the formation and maintenance of aphid-ant interactions. Examples include the physiological costs of ant attendance, competition for mutualistic ants, ant predation on aphids, the influence of host plants, and parasitoid wasps. Recent physiological techniques have also revealed the chemical component of aphid-ant mutualisms. The honeydew of ant-attended aphids contains melezitose (a trisaccharide), which has an important role in aphid-ant interactions. Studies of cuticular hydrocarbons on aphids and ants have clarified the underlying mechanisms of ant predation on aphids. Attending ants also reduce aphid dispersal ability, causing the formation of fragmented aphid populations with low genetic diversity in each population. The reduced aphid dispersal could be partly explained by higher wing loading and reduction of flight apparatus due to ant attendance. Whether ant attendance is associated with the range of host plants of aphids or genetic variation in microorganism in aphids remain to be explored.

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The evolution of mutualism

Cited by 196 publications

References 226 publications

A Trait-Based Model for Describing the Adaptive Dynamics of Coral-Algae Symbiosis

A Trait-Based Model for Describing the Adaptive Dynamics of Coral-Algae Symbiosis

Symbiotic adaptations in the fungal cultivar of leaf-cutting ants

Costs and constraints in aphid‐ant mutualism

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