The evolution of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding cytochromebfrom the linear mitochondrial genome

Abstract

We report a phylogenetic analysis of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding the cytochrome b protein from the mitochondrial genome. We have studied 17 species of Plasmodium, including 14 parasitic in primates. In our analysis, four species were used for rooting the Plasmodium phylogenetic tree: two from closely related genera (Hepatocystis sp. and Haemoproteus columbae) and two other Apicomplexa (Toxoplasma gondii and Theileria parva). We found that primate malaria parasites form a monophyletic group, with the only exception being the Plasmodium falciparumPlasmodium reichenowi lineage. Phylogenetic analyses that include two species of non-Plasmodium Haemosporina suggest that the genus Plasmodium is polyphyletic. We conclude that the biologic traits, such as periodicity and the capacity to relapse, have limited value for assessing the phylogenetic relationships among Plasmodium species. For instance, we found no evidence that would link virulence with the age of the host-parasite association. Our studies also reveal that the primate malaria parasites originated in Africa, which contradicts the presently held opinion of Southeast Asia as their center of origin. We propose that the radiation of Asian monkey parasites is a recent event where several life history traits, like differences in periodicity, appeared de novo.

Host specificity in avian blood parasites: a study ofPlasmodiumandHaemoproteusmitochondrial DNA amplified from birds

“…Morphological examination of the blood smears from individuals with GRW1 and PARUS1 infections tentatively identi¢ed them as Haemoproteus sylvae and Haemoproteus majoris, respectively (M. A. Anwar, personal communication). The other cluster instead seemed to contain mainly di¡erent Plasmodium species, including published sequences of Plasmodium gallinaceum (GALLUS) and Plasmodium elongatum (PASSER) (Escalante et al 1998) and GRW2 tentatively identi¢ed as Plasmodium nucleophilum from blood smears (M. A. Anwar, personal communication). However, the almost identical sequence in GRW2 and in COLUMBA (one substitution at position 166) (GenBank number AF069613) obtained from a dove (Columba livia) in Venezuela and reported to represent Haemoproteus columbae (Escalante et al 1998) is remarkable and questions whether Haemoproteus as a genus is monophyletic.…”

“…The other cluster instead seemed to contain mainly di¡erent Plasmodium species, including published sequences of Plasmodium gallinaceum (GALLUS) and Plasmodium elongatum (PASSER) (Escalante et al 1998) and GRW2 tentatively identi¢ed as Plasmodium nucleophilum from blood smears (M. A. Anwar, personal communication). However, the almost identical sequence in GRW2 and in COLUMBA (one substitution at position 166) (GenBank number AF069613) obtained from a dove (Columba livia) in Venezuela and reported to represent Haemoproteus columbae (Escalante et al 1998) is remarkable and questions whether Haemoproteus as a genus is monophyletic. We identi¢ed four di¡erent parasite mitochondrial haplotypes in the great reed warblers, two within the Haemoproteus cluster (GRW1 and GRW3) and two within the Plasmodium cluster (GRW2 and GRW4).…”

“…The phylogenetic relationships between the 12 passerine birds investigated here and the three bird species for which Haemoproteus or Plasmodium sequences are published (Escalante et al 1998) were derived from published phylogenies of Phylloscopus (Richman & Price 1992) and Acrocephalus (Helbig & Seibold 1999) and the relationship of these genera to Parus, Passer, Columba and Gallus (Sibley & Ahlquist 1990;Sheldon & Gill 1996).…”

The genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax: a review

“…These analyses received additional support when the combined data of complete mitochondrial genomes were reported in two independent studies , Jongwutiwes et al 2005. This information can maybe explain the fact that several isolates of P. vivax are practically identical to P. simium and the previous suggestion that this South American species originated from a host switch from humans to monkeys (Escalante et al 1998.…”

“…MSP-1 appears to be maintained by positive natural selection, both in P. falciparum (Hughes 1992, Escalante et al 1998, Conway et al 2000 and P. vivax (Putaporntip et al 2006). Similar observations have been made with other malaria antigens in which the host immune system is considered to be the selective driving force that allows the accumulation and frequent switch of suitable mutations in the parasite population (Escalante et al 2004).…”