The evolutionary history of the order Antipatharia (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) as inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA: implications for black coral taxonomy and systematics

Abstract

Although black corals inhabit all the world's oceans, they have been relatively understudied as ∼185 of 247 species occur at depths > 50 m. Antipatharians have been included in several phylogenetic studies; however, sample sizes are small and taxonomic coverage minimal. Low levels of mitochondrial (mt) sequence divergence within Scleractinia and Octocorallia are assumed to apply to all anthozoans, although no formal study has been conducted on the order Antipatharia. To quantify genetic variation in the black coral mitogenome, we analysed DNA sequences of the two longest intergenic regions (IGRs) and cox3‐cox1 for 26 of 41 genera, representing all families and subfamilies. We also quantified divergence at the intraspecific level using six mtIGRs and their flanking protein‐coding genes and rRNA for 100+ colonies of Antipathes griggi. Utilizing sequence data from the two mtIGRs, cox3‐cox1, as well as nuclear 18S and 28S, we constructed the first multi‐locus phylogenies of the Antipatharia. Reconstructions revealed that species in the genus Stichopathes are split across two families, Sibopathes macrospina groups among North Atlantic Parantipathes (suggesting the actinopharynx and mesenteries were secondarily lost), and three families are polyphyletic. These and other results provide novel, independent insights into the evolutionary history of antipatharians and support placement of species into higher‐level groupings based on microscopic skeletal features rather than gross colony morphology. An illustrated key to the seven currently recognized families is also provided. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London

A Short Review of the International Trade of Wild Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles Across the World and Throughout Two Decades

“…In some species, a single colony can reach several metres in height (Opresko and Sanchez, 2005), with longevity estimates in different species ranging from 12 to approximately 4250 years (Wagner, 2011 and references therein;Brugler, Opresko, & France, 2013). Most Antipatharia species are considered to lack symbiotic algae (Grigg, 1993), although evidence suggesting symbiosis was found in some species (Wagner et al, 2010;Bo et al, 2011).…”

“…to UNEP-WCMC, 2013). Reported growth rates ranged from 1.2 cm per year for A. griggi in Hawaii (Opresko, 2009;Brugler et al, 2013), to 159 cm per year for both Stichopathes cf. maldivensis from Indonesia (Bo et al, 2009) and Cirrhipathes cf.…”

In-situ observation of deep water corals in the northern Red Sea waters of Saudi Arabia

“…The scleractinians were identified based upon images and actual samples, whenever available. The octocorals and black corals were identified in ROV images with the help of taxonomists and based on published information (Brugler et al, 2013).…”

Early Ordovician black corals from China

“…Despite of this, Brugler et al (2013, p. 313) questioned the antipatharian relationship of Sinopathes reptans because: "...antipatharian spines do not form distinct, continuous longitudinal ridges, are not tubular in structure, and do not have a central canal". They hypothesized that these fossils are rather representative of a cnidarian closely related to the hydrozoan Hydractinia (Brugler et al 2013). In fact, the spines of S. reptans never form even indistinct longitudinal ridges, as was abundantly illustrated by Baliński et al (2012; also this paper Fig.…”

“…A majority of antipatharian species inhabit tropical and subtropical regions in deeper-water to abyssal depth environments, but they can also be found in subtidal and polar settings , Brugler et al 2013. The skeleton of black corals (corallum) is composed of laminar chitin complexed with the protein antipatharin (Williams et al 2006).…”