The Exploitation of Lysosomes in Cancer Therapy with Graphene-Based Nanomaterials

Abstract

Graphene-based nanomaterials (GNMs), including graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and graphene quantum dots, may have direct anticancer activity or be used as nanocarriers for antitumor drugs. GNMs usually enter tumor cells by endocytosis and can accumulate in lysosomes. This accumulation prevents drugs bound to GNMs from reaching their targets, suppressing their anticancer effects. A number of chemical modifications are made to GNMs to facilitate the separation of anticancer drugs from GNMs at low lysosomal pH and to enable the lysosomal escape of drugs. Lysosomal escape may be associated with oxidative stress, permeabilization of the unstable membrane of cancer cell lysosomes, release of lysosomal enzymes into the cytoplasm, and cell death. GNMs can prevent or stimulate tumor cell death by inducing protective autophagy or suppressing autolysosomal degradation, respectively. Furthermore, because GNMs prevent bound fluorescent agents from emitting light, their separation in lysosomes may enable tumor cell identification and therapy monitoring. In this review, we explain how the characteristics of the lysosomal microenvironment and the unique features of tumor cell lysosomes can be exploited for GNM-based cancer therapy.

The futuristic applications of transition metal dichalcogenides for cancer therapy

“…TMDCs not only have a high photothermal conversion activity with a large surface area but making them ideal for delivering biomolecules and medications into effective cells for cancer treatment [29]. These 2D nanomaterials resemble graphene provide candidates for photothermal combination treatment [30]. TMDCs might be recommended as potential materials for different future biomedical applications, including cancer therapy, with thorough safety evaluation and biocompatibility assessment (Figure 2).…”

“…The objective is to offer a thorough examination of the logical structures and advancements of these nanomaterials, addressing present obstacles and future prospects in this domain [26]. This review discuss the undisclosed aspects of TMDCs, in biomedical applications majorly against cancer [29,30].…”