The expression of cancer stem cells and its effects on the propensity for recurrence and metastasis in bladder cancer: a systematic review

Abstract

Bladder cancer is one of the most frequent cancers of the urinary tract, associated with high recurrence rates and metastasis. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subpopulation of cancer cells characterized by high self-renewal and differentiation capacities, resulting in increased cancer recurrence, larger tumor size, higher rates of metastasis, higher resistance to treatment, and overall poorer prognosis. This study aimed to evaluate the role of CSCs as a prognostic tool to predict the risks of metastasis and recurrence in bladder cancer. A literature search was conducted across seven databases from January 2000 to February 2022 for clinical studies investigating the use of CSCs to determine the prognosis of bladder cancer. The following keywords were used: (“Bladder Cancer” OR “Transitional Cell Carcinoma” OR “Urothelial Carcinoma”) AND (“Stem Cell” OR “Stem Gene”) AND (“Metastasis” OR “Recurrence”). A total of 12 studies were deemed eligible for inclusion. SOX2, IGF1R, SOX4, ALDH1, CD44, Cripto-1, OCT4, ARRB1, ARRB2, p-TFCP2L1, CDK1, DCLK1, and NANOG, which were all identified as CSC markers, have been implicated in the recurrence and metastasis of tumor in bladder cancer, which played a role as prognostic factor of bladder cancer. Given the pluripotent and highly proliferative properties of CSCs. CSCs may play a role in the complex biological behavior of bladder cancer, including, but not limited to, its high rates of recurrence, metastasis, and resistance to treatment. The detection of cancer stem cell markers offers a promising approach in determining the prognosis of bladder cancer. Further studies in this area are thus warranted and may contribute significantly to the overall management of bladder cancer.

The transcription factor sex-determining region Y-box 2 (SOX2) in bladder cancer

“…Prior studies of SOX2 expression in bladder cancer support our findings [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]. Notably, Chui et al showed SOX2 silencing slows bladder cancer growth in spheroid models and reduces spheroid formation [18].…”

Prediction model for pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma using nCounter assay

“…There are some potential mechanisms by which CDK1 expression might contribute to metastasis. CDK1 , as cyclin‐dependent kinase 1, is a pivotal regulator of the cell cycle, driving progression through the G1, S, and G2/M phases 23,24 . Elevated CDK1 expression can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation, a hallmark of tumorigenesis and a prerequisite for metastasis.…”

“…CDK1, as cyclindependent kinase 1, is a pivotal regulator of the cell cycle, driving progression through the G1, S, and G2/M phases. 23,24 Elevated CDK1 expression can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation, a hallmark of tumorigenesis and a prerequisite for metasta- Machine learning has been avoided in the medical area due to its poor explanation of causality. However, its algorithms with overwhelmingly excellent performances are being developed constantly.…”