The Frequency of Salmonella and Arizona Microorganisms in Zoo Turtles

Jackson, Crawford G.; Jackson, Marguerite M.

doi:10.7589/0090-3558-7.2.130

Cited by 13 publications

(6 citation statements)

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“…DISCUSSION Much attention has been given to the association of Salmonella with reptiles, especially with the pet turtle P. scripta elegans, as well as various genera of lizards (4,12,14). Indeed, Salmonella has been isolated from at least 10 genera of turtles including specimens caught in the wild as well as those sampled in zoos (11,12,13). The incidence of Salmonella for individually contained turtles is about 15 to 20% (12,14), a range comparable to that reported by us.…”

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 57%

“…Counts in this range were routinely repeatable even after maintenance of turtles for 5 months in the laboratory. DISCUSSION Much attention has been given to the association of Salmonella with reptiles, especially with the pet turtle P. scripta elegans, as well as various genera of lizards (4,12,14). Indeed, Salmonella has been isolated from at least 10 genera of turtles including specimens caught in the wild as well as those sampled in zoos (11,12,13).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Potential Pathogens in the Environment: Isolation, Enumeration, and Identification of Seven Genera of Intestinal Bacteria Associated with Small Green Pet Turtles1

McCoy

Seidler

1973

Applied Microbiology

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Bacteriological analyses were performed on fecal swabs and the aquarium water of 27 individually purchased specimens of the small green pet turtle, Pseudemys scripta elegans. Representatives of Aeromonas, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Proteus, Salmonella, and Serratia were isolated. Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Salmonella were encountered in 20% or more of the specimens, whereas Aeromonas was isolated from 63%. Klebsiella pneumoniae counts ranged from 103 to 104 per milliliter of aquarium water, whereas Aeromonas routinely exceeded 104 per milliliter. Aeromonas cultures from turtles were identical to 7 human isolates in some 29 biochemical tests. On the basis of our findings, we question whether the Salmonella-free certification program alone is sufficient to render these reptiles as safe pets. An association of the human pathogen Salmonella with reptiles has been a bacteriological fact for over a quarter of a century (14). Salmonellae have been isolated from turtles, snakes, and even from lizards (4, 14). Recently, Congress enacted federal legislation to effectively prohibit the interstate shipment of turtles harboring Salmonella and Arizona (26). Our interest in the microflora of pet turtles results from an interest in the ecology and taxonomy of Aeromonas bacteria. Aeromonads are gram-negative, fermentative, and oxidasepositive bacteria which have classically been associated with diseases in fish, frogs, and reptiles (2). In recent years, these opportunistic pathogens have also been isolated from numerous diseased animals from insects to man (1, 6, 9, 20, 24). During the course of acquiring a collection of Aeromonas cultures for ongoing taxonomic studies, one culture was received from R. M. Wood of the California State Department of Public Health. This isolate, designated CPHL in this paper, had been isolated from aquarium water containing a small green pet turtle which we believed to be Pseudemys scripta elegans. The owner of the 'Technical paper no. 3438, Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.

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Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 57%

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Potential Pathogens in the Environment: Isolation, Enumeration, and Identification of Seven Genera of Intestinal Bacteria Associated with Small Green Pet Turtles1

McCoy

Seidler

1973

Applied Microbiology

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“…isolation was 9%, 14% and 50% respectively, which is lower than published reports. Turtles may have infection rates varying from 12% to 85% (Jackson and Jackson, 1971;Keymer, 1972), snakes may have 16% to 92% infection rates (Iveson et al, 1969;Roggendorf and Muller, 1976) and lizards may have infection rates from 40% to 77% (Iveson et al, 1969;Koopman and Janssen, 1973). The higher frequency of isolation of Salmonella spp.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Retrospective and Longitudinal Study of Salmonellosis in Captive Wildlife in Trinidad

Gopee

Adesiyun

Caesar³

2000

Journal of Wildlife Diseases

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Morbidity and mortality of captive wildlife at the Emperor Valley Zoo, Trinidad from 1993 to 1996 were analysed to determine involvement of Salmonella spp. A 6 mo longitudinal study was conducted to determine the frequency of isolation of Salmonella spp. from apparently healthy, sick and dead wild mammals, birds, and reptiles. The antibiograms of Salmonella isolates were determined using the disc diffusion method. Fecal samples randomly selected from animal enclosures and cloacal swabs of snakes were cultured for Salmonella spp. following enrichment in tetrathionate and selenite cystine broths. For the 1993-96 period, Salmonella spp. was implicated in 17 (12%) of 141 sick or dead animals and the predominant serotype was S. typhimurium. During the 6 mo prospective study in a mean animal population of 1,186, there were 20 (2%) and 14 (1%) animals that were sick and died respectively; Salmonella spp. was implicated in only one mortality. Overall, of 1,012 samples from apparently healthy wildlife cultured, 66 (7%) yielded 24 serotypes of Salmonella. The predominant serotype were S. seigburg (16 isolates), S. gaminara (6 isolates), and S. thompson (6 isolates). None of the samples yielded S. typhimurium. The frequency of isolation of Salmonella spp. in reptiles (14%) was significantly higher than found in either mammals (7%) or birds (3%). Sixty-five (99%) of 66 Salmonella spp. isolates exhibited resistance to one or more of the nine antimicrobial agents tested. Resistance was high to cephalothin (92%), moderate to streptomycin (35%) and tetracycline (29%), but significantly low to gentamicin (2%), chloramphenicol (0%), and sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim (0%). The prevalence of asymptomatic infections by Salmonella spp. in zoo animals was high and the very high prevalence of antimicrobial resistance could be a problem when treating salmonellosis.

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“…Forty percent of all Salmonella serotypes have been predominantly cultured from reptiles and are rare in other animals (Mermin et al 2004). Salmonella is generally considered to be a part of the normal flora of the gastrointestinal tract ( Jackson and Jackson 1971;MacNeill et al 1986;Mader 1996;Jacobson 2007;Pedersen et al 2009), and less frequently as a cause of clinical salmonellosis in reptiles (Onderka and Finlayson 1985). Reptiles may become colonized or infected with Salmonella via the fecal-oral route through contact with other animals shedding the bacteria, or via ingestion of contaminated food or water (Mader 1996).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

SalmonellaIsolates from Wild-Caught Tokay Geckos (Gekko gecko) Imported to the U.S. from Indonesia

Smith

Yabsley

Sánchez

et al. 2012

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases

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Reptiles account for ∼10% of live animal shipments imported to the United States (U.S.), the majority of which are sold in the pet trade. Characterizing Salmonella shedding by imported reptiles is of value to public health, the pet industry, and veterinary medicine. Here we report results of a pilot survey of Salmonella serotypes isolated from wild-caught Indonesian Tokay geckos (Gekko gecko) imported to the U.S. Upon arrival, the geckos were individually housed until a fecal sample was acquired for Salmonella culture. The geckos were divided into three groups with variable numbers to investigate density effects. A second group was imported after 3 months and combined with the previous groups. A total of 88 Salmonella isolates were obtained from 110 geckos surveyed, representing 14 serogroups and 17 unique serotypes. Group prevalence ranged from 31-73%. A significant increase in prevalence and a change in serotype richness were detected between the time of import and 6 months later at necropsy. Six isolates (6.8%) expressed resistance to more than one antibiotic. All S. enterica subsp. enterica Adelaide isolates were resistant to nalidixic acid and sulfisoxazole, one S. enterica subsp. arizonae 61:k:z35 isolate was resistant to ampicillin and sulfisoxazole, and another 61:k:z35 isolate was resistant to streptomycin and sulfisoxazole. Forty-three additional isolates expressed resistance only to sulfisoxazole. The mechanisms for increased prevalence and apparent change in serotype richness are unknown, but could be due to stress associated with trade, transport, and captivity, increased transmission from unnaturally high densities, or contact with other species shedding Salmonella along the trade route. Future studies to differentiate the physical, social, and physiological effects of trade-related conditions on Salmonella shedding and transmission among reptiles will benefit the industry by identifying ways to reduce mortality, and safeguard the individuals handling animals along the transport chain and other species encountered en route.

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The Frequency of Salmonella and Arizona Microorganisms in Zoo Turtles

Cited by 13 publications

References 0 publications

Potential Pathogens in the Environment: Isolation, Enumeration, and Identification of Seven Genera of Intestinal Bacteria Associated with Small Green Pet Turtles1

Potential Pathogens in the Environment: Isolation, Enumeration, and Identification of Seven Genera of Intestinal Bacteria Associated with Small Green Pet Turtles1

Retrospective and Longitudinal Study of Salmonellosis in Captive Wildlife in Trinidad

SalmonellaIsolates from Wild-Caught Tokay Geckos (Gekko gecko) Imported to the U.S. from Indonesia

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