The fresco wall painting techniques in the Mediterranean area from Antiquity to the present: A review

Modern Muralists in the Spotlight: Technical and Material Characteristics of the 1946–1949 Mural Paintings by Almada Negreiros in Lisbon (Part1)

“…Historically, several materials have been used for this purpose, from lime to organic substances of different kinds (e.g., egg, animal glues, casein, oil, etc.) [13,40]. However, in As far as painting techniques are concerned, Almada seems to have combined fresco and secco techniques; however, identifying the binders is not as straightforward due to past interventions, which used materials that may be similar to the original ones employed by the artist in 1949 (e.g., PVA and oil paints).…”

“…The presence of lime in the nine samples analyzed was confirmed by µ-FTIR results that identified calcium carbonate in all the paint layers and by the elemental distribution maps of Ca in SEM-EDS analysis (Table 2). From the elemental distribution maps, it can also be seen that Ca was used as a binder when it is found in the composition of the matrix surrounding the pigment particles, but also as a white pigment and as an aggregate when identified in lumps (or grains) in the paint layer (Figures 5,10,11,and 13).…”

“…Historically, several materials have been used for this purpose, from lime to organic substances of different kinds (e.g., egg, animal glues, casein, oil, etc.) [13,40]. However, in the official list of materials to be used in the field provided by Almada Negreiros in 1947, only lime and earth pigments are mentioned [41].…”

“…Technical and material studies of mural paintings produced in the first half of the 20th century are still an unexplored field of research. The Industrial Revolution and advances in the chemical dyeing and painting industry from the 19th century onwards introduced new materials (such as Portland cement, acrylic, vinyl, and silicate-based paints) and paved new ways for mural painters to express their art on walls [9][10][11][12][13]. All over the world, artists ceased to limit themselves to the traditional methods of fresco and secco and started experimenting with new painting techniques and synthetic colours [11,14,15].…”