The Gender Dimensions of Pension Systems

Abstract

Notes: Includes countries in which mandatory pension contributions are paid into individual accounts. In some cases, affiliation was optional (and some or all workers could choose to stay in the public system).

Improving gender outcomes in social security retirement systems

“…In the EU (European Commission, 2017, 2015, pensions for persons aged 65 years old or older are on average 37.6% higher for men than for women. The biggest differences are found in the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Ireland.…”

“…In the EU, the gap is on average 16.3% and has actually increased since 2010 (European Commission, 2017). These discrepancies stem largely from segmented labour markets in which women are simultaneously disproportionately overrepresented in low productivity sectors or occupations and underrepresented in managerial posts, as well as being more likely to work part time 12 and to spend more time outside of paid employment (Arza, 2015;International Labour Organization, 2016;International Social Security Association, 2017).…”

“…In addition, women face unique vulnerabilities in old age that may be independent of their position in the labour market or their role as caregivers. Women are more likely than men to live longer, to be widowed, and to live alone, and informal structures, which have historically provided support to female pensioners, are increasingly under pressure (Arza, 2015;Bennett, 2017). There are significantly more one-person female households than male ones amongst persons over 65 years old, and women in this situation are significantly more likely to live in poverty.…”

“…On the other hand, pursuing these goals too quickly may risk outpacing social and labour market realities, where many women have not accumulated sufficient individual entitlements and still rely on survivor pensions for income. Hence, individualisation as a tool to support gender equality in the labour market and household may paradoxically undermine (at least in the shorter run) more gender-equal outcomes for women with lower individual entitlements and actually exacerbate present-day inequalities in old age (Arza, 2015) unless an effective system of minimum pensions is put in place.…”

Retirement Pension Reforms in Six European Social Insurance Schemes between 2000 and 2017: More Financial Sustainability and More Gender Inequality?

“…However, the need to narrow government deficits, as stipulated by the Stability Pact, undoubtedly constituted a second important rationale for pension reform. Both factors explain the cost-containment reforms implemented to varying degrees in almost all European countries by the late 1990s and reinforced following the global crisis of 2008 (Schwarz, 2006; OECD, 2012; Arza, 2015).…”