The Gender Pension Gap in China

Abstract

China has had a large gender gap in labor force participation, sectors of employment, and earnings. This study shows that disadvantages in the labor market for women are the primary drivers of the gender pension gap. Among people age 60 and older, women receive about half of the amount of men’s social pensions. Using the 2013 wave of China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) and the CHARLS Life History Survey of 2014, this contribution has three main findings. First, about three-quarters of the deficit in women’s pensions is explained by women’s lower likelihood of receiving occupational pensions, and one-third is due to smaller benefits when they do receive them. Second, the gender deficit in receiving an occupational pension can be explained by education level and employment sector. Third, among pension recipients, nearly one-third of the gender benefit gap is explained by women’s fewer years of employment and lower salaries.

Gender Patterns of Eldercare in China

“…Among those with need, 11.6 percent have at least one type of unmet need, and women are 29.3 percent ([12.8 percent-9.9 percent]/9.9 percent) more likely than men to have unmet needs. Given that older women are also more likely to be poor(Zhao and Zhao 2018), lack of care is likely to compound the misery of poverty. Multivariate analysis reveals that most of the gender gap in unmet needs is explained by the existence of a spouse and the health status of the spouse.…”

“…For an analysis of gender differences in pension, seeZhao and Zhao (2018).7 Using this information, we divide the health status of the respondent's spouse into three categories: those with no spouse, those whose spouse requires care, and those whose spouse requires no care.…”

Gender differential impact of bereavement on health outcomes: evidence from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, 2011–2015

“…The following factors may have contributed to a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms among bereaved women than men. First, women employed in formal sectors in China have a lower mandatory retirement age of 55 than men, who usually retire at age 60 [ 48 ]. Women may accrue lower pension over their careers than men and have less influence in the household budget [ 49 ].…”

Capturing gendered aspects of active aging in China: Insights drawn from the Active Aging Index in comparison with EU countries

“…Women have also been more likely to leave the labor force early for family reasons, for example, to care for grandchildren or older parents (Liu et al., 2010; Mao et al., 2017). Pension benefits in China are now determined by salary in the last year of an individual's employment, multiplied by a replacement rate, based on years of employment (Zhao & Zhao, 2018); consequently, women are disadvantaged if they are mandated to retire earlier than men.…”