The genetic diversity of Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium brasilianum from human, simian and mosquito hosts in Brazil

Abstract

Plasmodium malariae is a protozoan parasite that causes malaria in humans and is genetically indistinguishable from Plasmodium brasilianum, a parasite infecting New World monkeys in Central and South America. P. malariae has a wide and patchy global distribution in tropical and subtropical regions, being found in South America, Asia, and Africa. However, little is known regarding the genetics of these parasites and the similarity between them could be because until now there are only a very few genomic sequences available from simian Plasmodium species. This study presents the first molecular epidemiological data for P. malariae and P. brasilianum from Brazil obtained from different hosts and uses them to explore the genetic diversity in relation to geographical origin and hosts. By using microsatellite genotyping, we discovered that of the 14 human samples obtained from areas of the Atlantic forest, 5 different multilocus genotypes were recorded, while in a sample from an infected mosquito from the same region a different haplotype was found. We also analyzed the longitudinal change of circulating plasmodial genetic profile in two untreated non-symptomatic patients during a 12-months interval. The circulating genotypes in the two samples from the same patient presented nearly identical multilocus haplotypes (differing by a single locus). The more frequent haplotype persisted for almost 3 years in the human population. The allele Pm09-299 described previously as a genetic marker for South American P. malariae was not found in our samples. Of the 3 non-human primate samples from the Amazon Region, 3 different multilocus genotypes were recorded indicating a greater diversity among isolates of P. brasilianum compared to P. malariae and thus, P. malariae might in fact derive from P. brasilianum as has been proposed in recent studies. Taken together, our data show that based on the microsatellite data there is a relatively restricted polymorphism of P. malariae parasites as opposed to other geographic locations.

Malaria in Brazil: what happens outside the Amazonian endemic region

“…Concerning P. brasilianum, it has been demonstrated that monoclonal antibodies against the CSP of this parasite cross-react with those for P. malariae and strong molecular similarities have been described in these species (Cochrane et al 1985, Escalante et al 1998, Yamasaki et al 2011). Accordingly, several authors have suggested host transference of P. simium vs. P. vivax and P. brasilianum vs. P. malariae, although the direction remains unknown (Tazi & Ayala 2011, Guimarães et al 2012). …”

Primate malarias: Diversity, distribution and insights for zoonotic Plasmodium

“…P. brasilianum is closely related to human P. malariae and P. simium is closely related to Old World strains of human P. vivax [48]. Both may reflect a recent anthroponosis, resulting from cross-species transmission of the human parasite to New World Monkeys, but more genetic data is needed before the direction of transfer is substantiated [14], [54], [55]. P. brasilianum is the most generalist mammalian parasite and infects at least 29 species of Atelidae and Cebidae monkeys.…”

“…More genetic work on these parasites would help determine the transmission dynamics and whether these species are pan-American or if there are unique lineages within certain hosts or regions. Genetic data will also help uncover the direction of host transfer of these species and how much transmission occurs with humans in the present day [14], [67], [68].…”

“…Two of the most important human malaria parasites, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax , originated from a cross species transmission event of a NHP malaria to humans [7], [8], [9], [10]. Additionally, zoonotic spillover of wild primate malaria is an emerging global public health concern [11], [12], [13], [14]. This is especially important in Malaysian Borneo, where the majority of human malaria cases are caused by a monkey malaria, Plasmodium knowlesi [15], [16], [17].…”

A Review of Plasmodium coatneyi–Macaque Models of Severe Malaria

“…42,63,90 Unique plasmodium-vertebrate interactions continue to be discovered in reptiles and birds. 38,45,49,85,87,120 The earliest genetic evidence of a malaria plasmodium, dated at approximately 30 million years ago, was obtained through the extraction of DNA from mosquitoes fossilized in amber from the Paleogene period.…”