The Gut Microbiome and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Discussing A Complex Relationship

Abstract

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a disease that affects over 9% of the United States population and is closely linked to obesity. While obesity was once thought to stem from a sedentary lifestyle and diets high in fat, recent evidence supports the idea that there is more complexity pertinent to the issue. The human gut microbiome has recently been the focus in terms of influencing disease onset. Evidence has shown that the microbiome may be more closely related to T2DM than what was originally thought. High fat diets typically result in poor microbiome heath, which then shifts the gut into a state of dysbiosis. Dysbiosis can then lead to metabolic deregulation, including increased insulin resistance and inflammation, two key factors in the development of T2DM. The purpose of this review is to discuss how microbiome relates to T2DM onset, especially considering obesity, insulin resistance, and inflammation.

Utilization of Hydroxyl-Methyl Butyrate, Leucine, Glutamine and Arginine Supplementation in Nutritional Management of Sarcopenia—Implications and Clinical Considerations for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Risk Modulation

“…Similar experiments in separate studies also revealed the indirect role of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), mediated by the amount of 4E-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), again supporting the notion of a more resilient cell towards metabolic abrogation and, thus, metabolic syndrome [79]. Finally, recent developments have identified the microbiome as a key player/target for intervention, especially from a precision medicine perspective, for the potential risk modulation of metabolic syndrome and T2DM [70].…”

“…It is believed that an excess of reactive oxygen species form and transfer unpaired electrons, which then results in the oxidation of cellular machinery. In a healthy individual, antioxidants counter this process, but imbalance results in oxidative stress, glycation, and increased insulin resistance (Figure 1) [14,50,70,71].…”

“…It is believed that an excess of reactive oxygen species form and transfer unpaired electrons, which then results in the oxidation of cellular machinery. In a healthy individual, antioxidants counter this process, but imbalance results in oxidative stress, glycation, and increased insulin resistance ( Figure 1) [14,50,70,71]. To further illustrate the relationship between glucose clearance and muscle mass, Hong et al [72] conducted a large-scale cohort study involving 113,913 men and 89,854 women, all free of T2DM at the beginning of the study.…”

Endocrine Disruptors in Food: Impact on Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Diseases

“…This suggests that exposure to As not only induces disturbances in the abundance and composition of bacterial communities but also affects their metabolomic profile, which subsequently results in the disturbance of host metabolite homeostasis. These changes in metabolite homeostasis are important risk factors involved in tissue dysfunctions, which may cause diseases such as obesity and diabetes [139]. [43] reported that perinatal lead (Pb) exposure (32 ppm) in the drinking water, in wild-type non-agouti (a/a) mice of the Avy strain isogenic mouse model of perinatal environmental exposure, induced changes in the adult offspring gut microbiota.…”

Non-Alcoholic Beverages, Old and Novel, and Their Potential Effects on Human Health, with a Focus on Hydration and Cardiometabolic Health

“…In fact, regular consumption of artificial sweeteners has been associated with decreased satiety, altered glucose homeostasis and increased caloric intake and obesity in adults [ 32 , 35 ]. There is also significant evidence that artificial sweeteners change the gut microbiota in a non-favorable fashion thus increasing risk for obesity, T2DM, and CVD as the microbiota extends impact on those metabolic pathologies [ 36 ].…”