The High Cost of Motherhood: End-Lactation Syndrome in Southern Sea Otters (Enhydra Lutris Nereis) on the Central California Coast, Usa

Chinn, Sarah M.; Miller, Melissa A.; Tinker, M. Tim; Staedler, Michelle M.; Batac, Francesca; Dodd, Erin; Henkel, Laird A.

doi:10.7589/2015-06-158

Cited by 24 publications

(35 citation statements)

References 87 publications

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“…For a small marine mammal with limited energy reserves, this prolonged and sustained increase in daily metabolic demands represents an extreme energetic challenge. Despite foraging as much as 50-60% of each day (Esslinger et al, 2014;Thometz et al, 2014;Thometz et al, 2016), females are often in negative energy balance during lactation (Chinn et al, 2016). Further, any delay in independent foraging by pups can greatly increase the energetic burden on adult females during an already energetically taxing period when onboard reserves have been depleted.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Given the high cost of sea otter reproduction, this adaptation would be advantageous to females preparing for lactation and pup rearing. Indeed, nutritional pre-loading and improved body condition around parturition have been reported in wild sea otters (Chinn et al, 2016).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This condition, termed end-lactation syndrome, is the main cause in, or a major contributing factor to, over half of adult female sea otter deaths in California (Chinn et al, 2016). Thus, there appears to be a direct link between reproductive costs in this species and population-level trends.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Meeting the increasing caloric demands of a pup can lead to poor body condition, and ultimately push females beyond physiological limits, leading to mortality around the time of weaning (Chinn et al, 2016;Monson et al, 2000;Tinker et al, 2006). This condition, termed end-lactation syndrome, is the main cause in, or a major contributing factor to, over half of adult female sea otter deaths in California (Chinn et al, 2016).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Although increasing onboard fat reserves generally improve the body condition of female sea otters over the course of gestation (Chinn et al, 2016), these reserves are minimal in comparison to other marine mammals, which can utilize large energy-rich blubber stores (Costa and Williams, 1999). Consequently, female sea otters significantly deplete onboard fat reserves within the first weeks postpartum (Chinn et al, 2016) and must acquire the majority of the energy required for pup rearing during the 6 month dependency period (Riedman et al, 1994;Jameson and Johnson, 1993).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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The high cost of reproduction in sea otters necessitates unique physiological adaptations

Thometz

Kendall

Richter

et al. 2016

Journal of Experimental Biology

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Superimposed on inherently high basal metabolic demands, the additional energetic requirements of reproduction can push female sea otters beyond physiological limits. Indeed, the resulting energy imbalance contributes to disproportionately high rates of mortality at the end of lactation in this species. To examine and quantify metabolic changes associated with reproduction, we measured the resting metabolic rate (RMR) of a female sea otter across gestation, lactation and non-reproductive periods. Concurrently, measurements were made on a non-breeding control female. Our results suggest that RMR declines during gestation. Conversely, RMR increases during lactation, reaches a peak at 3-4 months postpartum, and remains elevated until weaning. Combining these direct measurements with published data, we found the cost of pup rearing to be significantly higher than previously estimated. High baseline energy demands and limited energy reserves, combined with significant lactation and pup rearing costs, appear to necessitate metabolic and thermal lability during key reproductive stages.

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Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 3 more Smart Citations

The high cost of reproduction in sea otters necessitates unique physiological adaptations

Thometz

Kendall

Richter

et al. 2016

Journal of Experimental Biology

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Aquatic Mammals

Duignan¹

2023

Pathology and Epidemiology of Aquatic Animal Diseases for Practitioners

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Anatomy of the sense of touch in sea otters: Cutaneous mechanoreceptors and structural features of glabrous skin

Strobel

Miller

Murray

et al. 2021

The Anatomical Record

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Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) demonstrate rapid, accurate tactile abilities using their paws and facial vibrissae. Anatomical investigations of neural organization in the vibrissal bed and somatosensory cortex coincide with measured sensitivity, but no studies describe sensory receptors in the paws or other regions of glabrous (i.e., hairless) skin. In this study, we use histology to assess the presence, density, and distribution of mechanoreceptors in the glabrous skin of sea otters: paws, rhinarium, lips, and flipper digits, and we use scanning electron microscopy to describe skin‐surface texture and its potential effect on the transduction of mechanical stimuli. Our results confirm the presence of Merkel cells and Pacinian corpuscles, but not Meissner corpuscles, in all sea otter glabrous skin. The paws showed the highest density of Merkel cells and Pacinian corpuscles. Within the paw, relative densities of mechanoreceptor types were highest in the distal metacarpal pad and digits, which suggests that the distal paw is a tactile fovea for sea otters. In addition to the highest receptor density, the paw displayed the thickest epidermis. Rete ridges (epidermal projections into the dermis) and dermal papillae (dermal projections into the epidermis) were developed across all glabrous skin. These quantitative and qualitative descriptions of neural organization and physical features, combined with previous behavioral results, contribute to our understanding of how structure relates to function in the tactile modality. Our findings coincide with behavioral observations of sea otters, which use touch to maintain thermoregulatory integrity of their fur, explore objects, and capture visually cryptic prey.

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The High Cost of Motherhood: End-Lactation Syndrome in Southern Sea Otters (Enhydra Lutris Nereis) on the Central California Coast, Usa

Cited by 24 publications

References 87 publications

The high cost of reproduction in sea otters necessitates unique physiological adaptations

The high cost of reproduction in sea otters necessitates unique physiological adaptations

Aquatic Mammals

Anatomy of the sense of touch in sea otters: Cutaneous mechanoreceptors and structural features of glabrous skin

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