The Hypnotic Induction in the Broad Scheme of Hypnosis: A Sociocognitive Perspective

Abstract

Researchers and clinicians typically divide hypnosis into two distinct parts: the induction and the suggestions that follow. We suggest that this distinction is arbitrary and artificial. Different definitions of hypnosis ascribe different roles to the hypnotic induction, yet none clearly specifies the mechanisms that mediate or moderate subjective and behavioral responses to hypnotic suggestions. Researchers have identified few if any differences in responding across diverse hypnotic inductions, and surprisingly little research has focused on the specific ingredients that optimize responsiveness. From a sociocognitive perspective, we consider the role of inductions in the broader scheme of hypnosis and suggest that there is no clear line of demarcation between prehypnotic information, the induction, suggestions, and other constituents of the hypnotic context. We describe research efforts to maximize responses to hypnotic suggestions, which encompass the induction and other aspects of the broader hypnotic framework, and conclude with a call for more research on inductions and suggestions to better understand their role within hypnotic interventions in research and clinical contexts.

The Sussex-Waterloo Scale of Hypnotizability (SWASH): measuring capacity for altering conscious experience

“…The common theme in hypnotic inductions is that they establish a hypnotic context for the period of time in which suggestions are delivered ( Sheehan and Perry 1976 ; Lynn et al 2017 ). There is evidence that the increase in response to suggestion attributable to hypnotic induction is small ( Braffman and Kirsch 1999 ; see Connors et al 2012 , for an exception), and that any increase in responding over non-hypnotic suggestibility may be attributable to the use of the word ‘hypnosis’ ( Gandhi and Oakley 2005 ).…”

“…While evidence for effects on responding is mixed (for a review see Terhune and Cardeña 2016 ), the prevalence of relaxation instructions in hypnotic inductions suggest that a requirement for relaxation might be expected by many and therefore be useful for establishing the hypnotic context ( Lynn et al 2017 ). Therefore, and although relaxation is not a necessary component of hypnotic inductions ( Banyai and Hilgard 1976 ; Cardeña 2005 ), we retained elements of the WSGC relating to relaxation and counting down in order to ensure the induction was long enough to meet participants’ possible expectations.…”

Myths and misconceptions about hypnosis and suggestion: Separating fact and fiction

“…A wide variety of inductions have been developed over the years, particularly in clinical practice, which raises the question of whether some induction procedures are more effective than others in enhancing responsiveness to suggestion. Several reviews largely concluded that no systematic evidence points to the utility of some inductions over others (Lynn, Maxwell, & Green, 2017;Terhune & Cardeña, 2016). (e.g., for relaxation), and their reference to outdated, unhelpful concepts (e.g., hypnosis as a sleep-like state) (Shor & Orne, 1962).…”

“…A wide variety of inductions have been developed over the years, particularly in clinical practice, which raises the question of whether some induction procedures are more effective than others in enhancing responsiveness to suggestion. Several reviews largely concluded that no systematic evidence points to the utility of some inductions over others (Lynn, Maxwell, & Green, 2017; Terhune & Cardeña, 2016). Similarly, in a Bayesian re‐analysis of previous studies comparing different types of inductions, Martin and Dienes (2019) primarily found that different inductions were comparable and not reliably different in terms of their efficacy.…”

Hypnosis in palliative care: from clinical insights to the science of self-regulation

“…For example, certain theories postulate that the induction yields an altered state of consciousness and the emergence of hypnotic phenomena (59). However, different arguments undermine the notion that induction and suggestions are conceptually distinct (60). First, both induction and suggestion rely on instructions that solely differ in content relative to their respective timing and purpose (61).…”