The Illegal Excavation and Trade of Syrian Cultural Objects: A View from the Ground

Brodie, Neil; Sabrine, Isber

doi:10.1080/00934690.2017.1410919

Cited by 45 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 5 publications

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“…Undoubtedly, some events were catalyzers to stimulate the use of satellite imagery for detecting looting, such as the Syrian conflict during which such data have come of age for archaeological purposes [29]. The impact of satellite imagery on the practice of heritage management and protection was so positive that international organizations, practitioners and heritage bodies nowadays regard satellite-based assessment as a source of objective information allowing a conservative estimate of the condition on site [30].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Detection of Archaeological Looting from Space: Methods, Achievements and Challenges

Tapete

Cigna

2019

Remote Sensing

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Illegal excavations in archaeological heritage sites (namely “looting”) are a global phenomenon. Satellite images are nowadays massively used by archaeologists to systematically document sites affected by looting. In parallel, remote sensing scientists are increasingly developing processing methods with a certain degree of automation to quantify looting using satellite imagery. To capture the state-of-the-art of this growing field of remote sensing, in this work 47 peer-reviewed research publications and grey literature are reviewed, accounting for: (i) the type of satellite data used, i.e., optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR); (ii) properties of looting features utilized as proxies for damage assessment (e.g., shape, morphology, spectral signature); (iii) image processing workflows; and (iv) rationale for validation. Several scholars studied looting even prior to the conflicts recently affecting the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Regardless of the method used for looting feature identification (either visual/manual, or with the aid of image processing), they preferred very high resolution (VHR) optical imagery, mainly black-and-white panchromatic, or pansharpened multispectral, whereas SAR is being used more recently by specialist image analysts only. Yet the full potential of VHR and high resolution (HR) multispectral information in optical imagery is to be exploited, with limited research studies testing spectral indices. To fill this gap, a range of looted sites across the MENA region are presented in this work, i.e., Lisht, Dashur, and Abusir el Malik (Egypt), and Tell Qarqur, Tell Jifar, Sergiopolis, Apamea, Dura Europos, and Tell Hizareen (Syria). The aim is to highlight: (i) the complementarity of HR multispectral data and VHR SAR with VHR optical imagery, (ii) usefulness of spectral profiles in the visible and near-infrared bands, and (iii) applicability of methods for multi-temporal change detection. Satellite data used for the demonstration include: HR multispectral imagery from the Copernicus Sentinel-2 constellation, VHR X-band SAR data from the COSMO-SkyMed mission, VHR panchromatic and multispectral WorldView-2 imagery, and further VHR optical data acquired by GeoEye-1, IKONOS-2, QuickBird-2, and WorldView-3, available through Google Earth. Commonalities between the different image processing methods are examined, alongside a critical discussion about automation in looting assessment, current lack of common practices in image processing, achievements in managing the uncertainty in looting feature interpretation, and current needs for more dissemination and user uptake. Directions toward sharing and harmonization of methodologies are outlined, and some proposals are made with regard to the aspects that the community working with satellite images should consider, in order to define best practices of satellite-based looting assessment.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Detection of Archaeological Looting from Space: Methods, Achievements and Challenges

Tapete

Cigna

2019

Remote Sensing

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“…This was supported with reference to a photograph, depicting a document which indicates the holder of the paper is granted the right to loot objects with a specific tax amount being paid to ISIS (Daniels and Hanson 2015;Willett 2016). The result of this photo and additional evidence is the premise that illicit antiquities networks funded terrorist organizations including ISIS (Brodie and Sabrine 2018;Daniels and Hanson 2015;Willett 2016). This article will not begin to speculate as to the validity of these statements.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 96%

Antiquities in a time of conflict: a crime script analysis of antiquities trafficking during the Syrian Civil War and implications for conflict antiquities

Weirich

2021

Crime Sci

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The Syrian Civil War created an opportunity for increased trafficking of antiquities and has resulted in a renewed awareness on the part of a global audience. The persistence of criminal and organisational networks which facilitate antiquities trafficking networks (ATNs) has been recognised as significant, leading to increased interest in the development of new and improved methods of understanding such networks. While this field of research has traditionally been dominated by relevant areas such as archaeology, law, art and museum studies, there is a noticeable gap in crime prevention research. This paper presents a crime script of Syrian antiquities trafficking networks during the Syrian Civil War which has been generated from open source journalistic data. In creating a broad crime script for such a prevalent issue, this paper aims to demonstrate the need for further crime script analysis and specifically crime prevention research more generally within the study of antiquities trafficking.

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“…For example, in the midst of the ongoing civil war in Syria, the Assad government is suspected of taking bribes to facilitate the exportation of cultural property, if not actively supporting such exportation. 194 India has also suggested eliminating government-issued licenses for antiquities dealers, although it should be noted that this is highly controversial. 195 Finally, a lack of awareness of the extent of the benefits provided by the UNESCO Convention or apathy towards cultural property protection could also explain some countries' reluctance to sign onto the Convention, especially if other, more pressing socioeconomic concerns are considered.…”

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confidence: 99%

Keeping the Barbarians at the Gates: The Promise of the UNESCO and UNIDROIT Conventions for Developing Countries

Goodyear

2020

MJIL

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The illicit trade in cultural property is a global phenomenon, powered by criminal networks and smuggling trains that sacrifice local culture for the black market of the art world. Headlines featuring the Islamic State’s lucrative exchange in stolen cultural property, among other incidents, have raised the profile of the illicit cultural property trade on the global stage. Developing countries, as the most prominent source countries of cultural property, are particularly at risk. Existing scholarship has searched for a solution to this crisis, suggesting a new international treaty to protect cultural property or recommending the utilization of adjacent legal fields. However, these solutions overlook the ready benefits of two existing international treaties on cultural property, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (“UNESCO”) and United Nations International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (“UNIDROIT”) Conventions. While the UNESCO and UNIDROIT Conventions do not provide an absolute solution to the illicit cultural property trade, they are accessible and underutilized options that are particularly calibrated to assist developing countries. Increased ratification of the UNESCO and UNIDROIT Conventions would grant source country States Parties the enforcement benefits of the import regulations and domestic court systems of market country States Parties, and the strength of the Conventions would rise as the number of signatories increases. The costs imposed on developing country signatories are deliberately low to aid them in protection and recovery. Furthermore, the adoption of these two Conventions does not constrain States Parties from contemplating and implementing additional mechanisms to further protect cultural property. The UNESCO and UNIDROIT Conventions thus offer ready, underutilized options for developing countries to better protect their cultural property.

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The Illegal Excavation and Trade of Syrian Cultural Objects: A View from the Ground

Cited by 45 publications

References 5 publications

Detection of Archaeological Looting from Space: Methods, Achievements and Challenges

Detection of Archaeological Looting from Space: Methods, Achievements and Challenges

Antiquities in a time of conflict: a crime script analysis of antiquities trafficking during the Syrian Civil War and implications for conflict antiquities

Keeping the Barbarians at the Gates: The Promise of the UNESCO and UNIDROIT Conventions for Developing Countries

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