The impact of age and motivation on cognitive effort: Implications for cognitive engagement in older adulthood.

Abstract

We examined age differences in the effort required to perform the basic cognitive operations needed to achieve a specified objective outcome and how hypothesized increases in effort requirements in later life are related to intrinsic motivation associated with enjoyment of and participation in effortful cognitive activities. Young (N = 59; 20–40 years) and older (N = 57; 64–85 years) adults performed a memory-search task varying in difficulty across trials, with systolic blood pressure responsivity—calculated as the increase over baseline during task performance—used as a measure of effort expenditure and task engagement. Consistent with expectations, older adults exhibited greater levels of responsivity (i.e., effort) at all levels of objective task difficulty, and this increase was reflected in subjective perceptions of difficulty. Older adults also exhibited greater levels of disengagement (i.e., effort withdrawal) than younger adults at higher levels of task difficulty, conceivably reflecting the disproportionately greater effort required for successful performance in the former group. We also found that, relative to younger adults, older adults’ engagement was more sensitive to the importance attached to the task (i.e., motivation to do well). Finally, we also obtained evidence that increased costs associated with cognitive engagement in later life were negatively associated with intrinsic levels of motivation to engage in effortful cognitive activity. The results support the general conclusion that the costs of cognitive activity increase with age in adulthood, and that these costs influence individuals’ willingness to engage resources in support of demanding cognitive activities.

Difficulty, effort and cardiovascular response to a working memory challenge: Older adults with and without mild cognitive impairment

“…For example, Hess and Ennis (2012) found stronger SBP responses in older adults during both a fatigue induction period in which participants were presented a simple or complex counting challenge and an ensuing fatigue influence period in which participants solved multiplication problems. In a follow-up, Ennis et al (2013) found higher difficulty appraisals and stronger SBP responses in older adults responding to a Sternberg (1966) type memory task whose difficulty was varied across trial blocks. They also found that older adults (1) displayed greater reductions in SBP responses at higher difficulty levels and (2) evinced SBP responses that were more sensitive to rated success importance.…”

“…Recently, Hess and colleagues applied aspects of the ability analysis above to address questions pertaining to effort and CV responsiveness in older adults (Ennis et al, 2013;Hess, 2014;Hess andEnnis, 2012, 2014;Smith and Hess, 2015). They reasoned that, due to normal (i.e., asymptomatic), age-related declines in cognitive function, older adults should find it more difficult to initiate and maintain cognitive performance.…”

Physical and mental effort disrupts the implicit sense of agency

“…Subjective task difficulty has been shown to be related to effort expenditure (Ennis, Hess & Smith, 2013). Those who experienced the high task-related effort as less effortful would require less cognitive resources to maintain the effort manipulation.…”

A Novel Theoretical Life Course Framework for Triggering Cognitive Development across the Lifespan

“…There is no doubt that cognitive aging is a multifaceted process and that holistic individually tailored treatments are likely more effective than generic single-track interventions [e.g., Bredesen, 2014]. Individual factors (as well as sociocultural factors) that may play important roles in cognitive aging and intervention efficacy include (but are not limited to) personality [e.g., openness, Sharp et al, 2010], initial motivation/interest [e.g., Ennis, Hess, & Smith, 2013], level and type of reinforcement required, cultural factors [e.g., Park & Gutchess, 2006], socioeconomic status, and education level. Cognitive interventions including our six factors may have cascading effects on these other factors.…”