The Impact of COVID-19 Traumatic Stressors on Mental Health: Is COVID-19 a New Trauma Type

Abstract

COVID-19 is a new type of trauma that has never been conceptually or empirically analyzed in our discipline. This study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 as traumatic stress on mental health after controlling for individuals’ previous stressors and traumas. We utilized a sample of (N = 1374) adults from seven Arab countries. We used an anonymous online questionnaire that included measures for COVID-19 traumatic stress, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, and cumulative stressors and traumas. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression, with posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety as dependent variables. In the first step, in each analysis, we entered the country, gender, age, religion, education, and income as independent variables (Kira, Traumatology 7(2):73–86, 2001; Kira, Torture, 14:38–44, 2004; Kira, Traumatology, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000305). In the second step, we entered cumulative stressors and traumas as an independent variable. In the third step, we entered either COVID-19 traumatic stressors or one of its subtypes (fears of infection, economic, and lockdown) as an independent variable. Finally, we conducted structural equation modeling with PTSD, depression, and anxiety as predictors of the latent variable mental health and COVID-19 as the independent variable. Results indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stressors, and each of its three subtypes, were unique predictors of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Thus, COVID-19 is a new type of traumatic stress that has serious mental health effects. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11469-021-00577-0.

Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and the Sense of Gains and Losses during the COVID-19 Pandemic: An International Study

“…Trauma was induced by the lockdowns introduced in successive countries, periods of withdrawal from or reinstating restrictions, the uncertainty related to the introduced vaccines and post-vaccination symptoms, and currently the uncertainty about the future in connection to the spreading infections with Delta and Omicron variants [ 14 ]. Research findings from 2019–2020 reported an increased sense of threat to life, and to motor and cognitive abilities, both in patients and in entire communities [ 15 , 16 ], increased incidence of complicated grief in connection to the death of the loved ones and the inability to be present in the last moments of their life [ 17 ] as well as loss of rituals (weddings and religious ceremonies), loss of work and financial status, loss of social support and sense of security, and even loss of one’s sense of identity [ 7 , 18 , 19 ].…”

Exhausted due to the pandemic: Validation of Coronavirus Stress Measure and COVID-19 Burnout Scale in a Polish sample

“…The COVID-19 pandemic caused the occurrence of a large number of chronic stressors such as persistent fear of contagion, fear of economic or work difficulties, (mis) information overload, uncertainty and social isolation (Kira et al, 2021). The increased levels of stress associated with the pandemic can cause depression and anxiety due to impaired psychological control and deprived hope (Gallagher et al, 2021;Sher, 2020).…”

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“…Research has demonstrated that both animals and humans tend to eat comfortably nutrient-dense food in response to stress [ 92 ]. As such, it makes conceptual sense that coronavirus stress —a sudden stressor [ 93 , 94 ]—may lead to overeating. This coping activity act to reduce the psychological burden imposed by emotional distress, release cognitive resources to adjust and deal with everyday activities, which have not stopped during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 95 – 97 ].…”