“…Nalbantian and Schotter, 1997;Van Dijk et al, 2001) is that with proportional or egalitarian sharing rule contests between groups lead to high individual effort and little freeriding. More recent experimental studies (Abbink et al, 2010;Ahn et al, 2011;Cason et al, 2012Cason et al, , 2017Leibbrandt and Sääksvuori, 2012;Ke et al, 2013Ke et al, , 2015Eisenkopf, 2014;Sheremeta, 2011;Brookins et al, 2015;Bhattacharya, 2016;Chowdhury et al, 2016) also consistently find that average effort level (though often showing a declining pattern) is significantly higher than the equilibirum prediction. Sheremeta (2013) reports based on 30 studies that the median over-expenditure is 72%.…”