The incidence and role of negative citations in science

Abstract

Citations to previous literature are extensively used to measure the quality and diffusion of knowledge. However, we know little about the different ways in which a study can be cited; in particular, are papers cited to point out their merits or their flaws? We elaborated a methodology to characterize "negative" citations using bibliometric data and natural language processing. We found that negative citations concerned higher-quality papers, were focused on a study's findings rather than theories or methods, and originated from scholars who were closer to the authors of the focal paper in terms of discipline and social distance, but not geographically. Receiving a negative citation was also associated with a slightly faster decline in citations to the paper in the long run.social studies of science | citation analysis | bibliometric techniques | natural-language processing | negative citations S cientific knowledge is a key input for economic prosperity (1-3) and evolves thanks to the complementary contributions of different scientists. The norms that regulate the scientific community coordinate this endeavor (4-6).Citation of previous work is one such norm and a major means of documenting the collective and cumulative nature of knowledge production. Citations allow for the establishment of credit and the identification of scientific paradigms and their shifts (7, 8); they measure the impact and quality of discoveries and, by extension, of a researcher, an institution, or a journal (9, 10). Studies rely on citation data also to analyze the diffusion of scientific ideas, the creation and evolution of scientific networks, and the role of top scientists and inventions (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17).Less attention has been devoted to the different intentions behind a citation. In particular, although papers may often be cited because a current study is consistent with past work or builds upon it, a reference can sometimes be made to point out limitations, inconsistencies, or flaws that are even more serious. These "negative" citations may question or limit the scope and impact of a contribution, a scholar, or an entire line of research. Criticisms expressed through citations could also be part of the "falsification" process that, according to Karl Popper, characterizes science and could be a signal of the solidity of a field (18). For example, the recent criticisms and eventual dismissal of the evidence of gravitational waves and ultrafast expansion of the universe in the "big bang" were interpreted as developments in the study of the origins of the universe (19). Even for findings that are eventually confirmed, critiques may be beneficial in the process. For instance, the Copernican revolution benefited from and was refined by Tycho Brahe's observations about inconsistencies in the heliocentric view, despite the eventual falsification of Brahe's theory (20).A thorough classification and understanding of different types of citations, and in particular of negative citations-their incidence, distribution within researc...

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