The influence of gender on COVID-19 infections and mortality in Germany: Insights from age- and gender-specific modeling of contact rates, infections, and deaths in the early phase of the pandemic

Abstract

Recent research points towards age- and gender-specific transmission of COVID-19 infections and their outcomes. The effect of gender, however, has been overlooked in past modelling approaches of COVID-19 infections. The aim of our study is to explore how gender-specific contact behavior affects gender-specific COVID-19 infections and deaths. We consider a compartment model to establish short-term forecasts of the COVID-19 epidemic over a time period of 75 days. Compartments are subdivided into different age groups and genders, and estimated contact patterns, based on previous studies, are incorporated to account for age- and gender-specific social behaviour. The model is fitted to real data and used for assessing the effect of hypothetical contact scenarios all starting at a daily level of 10 new infections per million population. On day 75 after the end of the lockdown, infection rates are highest among the young and working-age, but they also have increased among the old. Sex ratios reveal higher infection risks among women than men at working ages; the opposite holds true at old age. Death rates in all age groups are twice as high for men as for women. Small changes in contact rates at working and young ages have a considerable effect on infections and mortality at old age, with elderly men being always at higher risk of infection and mortality. Our results underline the high importance of the non-pharmaceutical mitigation measures (NPMM) in low-infection phases of the pandemic to prevent that an increase in contact rates leads to higher mortality among the elderly, even if easing measures take place among the young. At young and middle ages, women’s contribution to increasing infections is higher due to their higher number of contacts. Gender differences in contact rates may be one pathway that contributes to the spread of the disease and results in gender-specific infection rates and their mortality outcome. To further explore possible pathways, more data on contact behavior and COVID-19 transmission is needed, which includes gender- and socio-demographic information.

Occurence of pulmonary fibrosis in COVID-19

“…This result in our study is consistent with many studies, including the study of Guido Iaccarino and his colleagues in Italy [5] As for age, our study agreed with the consensus of international studies on the increased risk and rates of infection and access to care for the elderly, including the study of Achim Doerre and his colleagues in Germany. [6] As for the radiological ndings, the pulmonary consolidation were the most common nding in our study, we found a difference in other studies that found that the most common ndings were the ground glass opacities and the consolidation together, such as the Chinese study of Ming-Yen and his colleagues , [7] and this can be attributed to a difference in the timing of taking the radiological ndings or the classi cation method.…”

Study of pulmonary fibrosis as a complication in COVID-19

“…This result in our study is consistent with many studies, including the study of Guido Iaccarino and his colleagues in Italy [5] As for age, our study agreed with the consensus of international studies on the increased risk and rates of infection and access to care for the elderly, including the study of Achim Doerre and his colleagues in Germany. [6] As for the radiological ndings, the pulmonary consolidation were the most common nding in our study, we found a difference in other studies that found that the most common ndings were the ground glass opacities and the consolidation together, such as the Chinese study of Ming-Yen and his colleagues , [7] and this can be attributed to a difference in the timing of taking the radiological ndings or the classi cation method.…”

Parents' reasons to vaccinate their children aged 5–11 years against COVID-19 in Italy

“…Indeed, females and those with a lower educational level had a higher concern of side effects of the vaccination and this reflects the general trend in access to COVID-19 vaccine disparities that has been observed in several previous studies ( 33 – 37 ). The reason by which females are more concerned may be explained by the fact that in Italy they were more affected than men although male presented a higher risk of death ( 38 ). With regard to the results of the educational level, a possible explanation is that parents with a higher level are able to get more information easier than the general population that makes them advantageous over part of the other societies.…”