The influence of multiple oppressions on women of color’s experiences with insidious trauma.

Abstract

In this study, we examined the relations between multiple forms of oppressive experiences (i.e., racism, sexism, and sexual objectification) and trauma symptoms among Women of Color (WOC). In addition, self-esteem was explored as a partial mediating variable in these links, and ethnic identity strength was proposed to buffer the negative relationship between multiple forms of oppression and self-esteem, and the positive relationship between oppressive experiences and trauma symptoms. Results suggested that self-esteem partially mediated the positive relationship between racist experiences and trauma symptoms, such that racism was related to lower self-esteem, which was then related to more trauma symptoms. Sexism and sexual objectification were directly linked with trauma symptoms. Moreover, average and high levels of ethnic identity strength buffered the positive link between racism and trauma symptoms. Consistent with an additive intersectionality framework, results demonstrate the importance of attending to multiple forms of oppression as they relate to trauma symptoms among WOC. (PsycINFO Database Record

Gendered Racial Microaggressions and Traumatic Stress Symptoms Among Black Women

“…Of note, our findings provide additional evidence that even subtle forms of gendered racism, such as gendered racial microaggressions, have a significant link to greater traumatic stress, building upon previous research (Lewis & Neville, 2015;Lewis, Williams, Peppers, & Gadson, 2017). Our findings also extend the large body of theoretical (Carlson, 1997;Carter, 2007;Nadal, 2018) and empirical research (e.g., Carter et al, 2016;Carter, Muchow, & Pieterse, 2018;Torres & Taknint, 2015;L. B. Watson et al, 2016) on the role of racism and other forms of discrimination as sources of race-based traumatic stress.…”

“…In an empirical investigation of women of color's experiences with racism and sexism as insidious trauma (i.e., the lifetime cumulative effects of discriminatory events), L. B. Watson, DeBlaere, Langrehr, Zelaya, and Flores (2016) found that racism was related to lower levels of self-esteem, which was then related to greater trauma symptoms; moreover, sexism and sexual objectification were found to have a direct association with greater trauma symptoms. This study demonstrated the negative influence of overt discriminatory experiences on mental health and wellbeing.…”

“…For example, Speight (2007) offered a critique and extension of Carter's (2007) model of race-based traumatic stress by highlighting the role of internalized racism as a key factor in the link between experiencing racism and negative mental health outcomes. Empirical studies have also found that internalization of negative messages about Black women may have a negative influence on self-esteem, which may then exacerbate the influence of racism on mental health (Fischer & Shaw, 1999;L. B. Watson, DeBlaere, Langrehr, Zelaya, & Flores, 2016).…”

Theories for Race and Gender Differences in Management of Social Identity-Related Stressors: a Systematic Review

“…Although only 65% of the studies in this review exploring intersectionality support a statistical interaction, a moderate theoretical base bolsters these empirical findings. These frameworks assert that at the junction of socially-constructed race and gender, distinct cultural prescripts bear upon one another, demanding resources uniquely shaped by the stressors individuals face as a result of occupying multiple social positions [52,67,92,[202][203][204][205][206][207][208][209][210][211][212][213]. Gendered racism, as an example, is proposed as a contributor to the Superwoman Schema, a culturally-scripted role for black women as the source of community and family cohesiveness, simultaneously primary earner and household caretaker, expected to bear an extensive burden often at the cost of their own emotional and physical needs [203,209,213].…”

Distorting Concepts, Obscured Experiences: Hermeneutical Injustice in Religious Trauma and Spiritual Violence

“…There is significant overlap between SV and RT. Psychologists have increasingly come to understand that exposure to emotional abuse, discrimination, and oppression can cause symptoms that rise to the level of those experienced in PTSD, even when there is no threat of physical or sexual violence (Root 1992;2001;Carter 2007;Szymanski and Balsam 2011;Holmes, Facemire, and DaFonseca 2016;Watson et al 2016). Thus, when abuse and oppression are endorsed by the teachings, practices, symbols, or practitioners of a religion, there is the potential to satisfy both my own and Tobin's characterizations.…”