The influence of phytoestrogens on different physiological and pathological processes: An overview

Abstract

Functional foods have nutritional properties and organic functions, which are beneficial to health. Certain types of functional food components are so‐called phytoestrogens, non‐steroidal compounds derived from the metabolism of precursors contained in plants, which originate secondary metabotypes known to induce biological responses and by mimicry or modulating the action of endogenous estrogen. These molecules are involved in several physiological and pathological processes related to reproduction, bone remodeling, skin, cardiovascular, nervous, immune systems, and metabolism. This review aimed to present an overview of phytoestrogens regarding their chemical structure, actions, and effects in the organism given several pathologies. Several studies have demonstrated beneficial phytoestrogen actions, such as lipid profile improvement, cognitive function, menopause, oxidative stress, among others. Phytoestrogens effects are not completely elucidated, being necessary future research to understand the exact action mechanisms, whether they are via estrogen receptor or whether other hidden mechanisms produce these effects. Thus, this review makes a general approach to the phytoestrogen actions, beneficial effects, risk and limitations. However, the complexities of biological effects after ingestion of phytoestrogens and the differences in their metabolism and bioavailability indicate that interpretation of either risk or benefits needs to be made with caution.

Estrogenic Plants: to Prevent Neurodegeneration and Memory Loss and Other Symptoms in Women After Menopause

“…Various traditional plants to alleviate the effects of menopause contain phytoestrogens ( Lorand et al, 2010 ). In addition to their use to counteract menopause symptoms ( Rowe and Baber, 2021 ), phytoestrogens for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties may have many other therapeutic uses including being considered anti-cancer drugs ( Ardito et al, 2018 ; Basu and Maier, 2018 ; Petrine and Del Bianco-Borges, 2021 ), regulators of cholesterol metabolism, hepatoprotective ( Alipour and Karimi-Sales, 2020 ) and cardioprotective compounds ( Asokan Shibu et al, 2017 ). These properties have a broad impact on human health under normal and pathological states in aging, including beneficial effects on cognitive abilities ( Thaung Zaw et al, 2017 ; Dominguez and Barbagallo, 2018 ; Hussain et al, 2018 ).…”

Pleiotropic Effects of Isoflavones in Inflammation and Chronic Degenerative Diseases

“…However, despite that the neuroprotective effects of isoflavones have been observed in vitro in various cell cultures and in animal models, the results from the clinical trials in humans were contradictory [ 136 ] and more studies could be recommended to be able to draw the conclusion about the beneficial effects of isoflavones in neurodegenerative diseases [ 3 ]. Moreover, the use of high-throughput screening [ 137 ] and the computer-aided drug design [ 138 ] could also be valuable tools for the investigation of potential isoflavone-interacting proteins and their active sites.…”

“…), red clover ( Trifolium pratense L.), white clover ( Trifolium repens L.), alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.), various lupin ( Lupinus ) species and beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Depending on the endocrine levels of estrogen in an organism, isoflavones can act as estrogen agonists (at low concentrations) or antagonists (at high concentrations) [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Isoflavones can interact with both estrogen receptors α and β , with a much higher affinity for the latter [ 5 ], and mimic the action of estrogens on target organs, thereby exerting many health benefits when used in some hormone-dependent diseases [ 3 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].…”

“…Isoflavones can alleviate many pathological conditions including cancer, metabolic, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative diseases, rheumatoid arthritis and adverse menopause symptoms ( Figure 1 ). Recently, various aspects of isoflavones have been overviewed in detail in the following reviews [ 3 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Two mechanisms are implicated to be responsible for the beneficial effects of isoflavones—the estrogen receptor-mediated signaling pathway [ 2 , 7 , 8 ] and the modulation of other intracellular signaling pathways, e.g., phospholipase C, protein tyrosine kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase [ 3 , 7 , 14 , 15 ].…”

Current Perspectives on the Beneficial Effects of Soybean Isoflavones and Their Metabolites for Humans

“…In contrast, phytoestrogens are estrogen-like non-steroid substances found in plants (hence the prefix "phyto") and are effective in preventing cancer, arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis, menopausal symptoms, and obesity [2]. Twenty different types of phytoestrogens are known so far, including lignans (secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, pinoresinol, and lariciresinol), isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, glycitein, and formononetin), coumestans (coumestrol), and prenylflavonoids [3]. Such phytoestrogens are abundant in grains, vegetables, and fruits.…”