The influence of threatening visual warnings on tobacco packaging: Measuring the impact of threat level, image size, and type of pack through psychophysiological and self-report methods

Abstract

The first aim of this research was to assess the effectiveness, in terms of emotional and behavioral reactions, of moderately vs. highly TVWs (Threatening Visual Warnings) displayed on tobacco packs. Given the key role that emotional reactions play in explaining the effect of TVWs on behaviors, psychophysiological and self-report methods were used–for the first time in this context–to measure the emotions provoked by TVWs. The second aim of this research was to determine whether increasing the size of warnings, and their display on plain packaging (compared with branded packaging) would improve their effectiveness.A within-subjects experiment was conducted. Three variables were manipulated: health warning threat level (high vs. moderate), image size (40% vs. 75%) and pack type (plain vs. branded). A convenience sample of 48 French daily smokers participated. They were exposed to eight different packs of cigarettes in a research lab at the University of Rennes. Smokers’ emotions and behavioral intentions were recorded through self-reports. Emotions were also evaluated using psychophysiological measurements: electrodermal activity and facial electromyography. The results revealed that TVWs with a high threat level are the most effective in increasing negative emotions (fear, disgust, valence, arousal) and behavioral intentions conducive to public health (desire to quit, etc.). They also highlight the appeal of increasing the size of the warnings and displaying them on plain packs, because this influences emotions, which is the first step toward behavioral change.Increasing the threat level of TVWs from moderate to high seems beneficial for public health. Our results also confirm the relevance of recent governmental decisions to adopt plain packaging and larger TVWs (in the UK, France, Ireland, Canada, New Zealand, Hungary, etc.).

Sugary drink warnings: A meta-analysis of experimental studies

“…Such experimental studies would be an important complement to recent quasi-experimental research evaluating the real-world impact of Chile's nutrient warnings on sugary drink purchases [65]. Relatedly, most outcomes included in our meta-analysis were assessed via selfreport, and future studies should objectively measure other key mechanisms of behavior PLOS MEDICINE change [30,31], including attention (e.g., via eye tracking [55]) and emotional responses (e.g., via galvanic skin response or electromyography [66,67]). Third, a better understanding of how to design warnings is needed.…”

Do pictorial health warnings on waterpipe tobacco packs matter? Recall effectiveness among Egyptian waterpipe smokers & non-smokers

“…The opposite was observed for non-smokers, where warnings in survey round 1 were significantly more effective, which perhaps is related to the more fear-arousing topical content of PHWs that displayed a group of cancers caused by smoking in survey round 1. Non-smokers seem to process warnings with heightened perceived risk that reinforce continuing to be smoke-free [18], though recent research suggests that smokers may also strongly react emotionally and behaviourally to these threatening warnings [59].…”

Do negative emotions in social advertising really work? Confrontation of classic vs. EEG reaction toward advertising that promotes safe driving

“…For this purpose, different tools have been used: skin conductance and heart rate [64,65], electromyography [2,66], facial expressions analysis [67,68], eye-tracking [65,69] and electroencephalography (event-related potentials) [23,70]. In most cases, psychophysiological measures were used in addition to questionnaires [2,64,66,67] or interviews [68]. Their purpose was to analyze behavioral changes, to assess and recognize emotional responses, and to predict the effectiveness of social ads.…”

“…In terms of the effectiveness of negative appeals, results are inconclusive as some experiments have shown that higher intensity of negative emotions used in social advertising has greater beneficial effects on cognition and behaviors [64,66,67,71], while others have shown that the more negative the message is, the more avoidance responses and defense mechanisms are triggered [23,69,70]. The inconclusive nature of these results could be due to the fact that previous studies were usually testing only two different levels (low vs. high) of negative emotions intensity, what didn't allow to check hypothesis about curvilinear relation between the intensity of negative emotions and the effectiveness of social advertising.…”