The interweaving roles of mineral and microbiome in shaping the antibacterial activity of archaeological medicinal clays

Abstract

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Bridging the Gaps: Bole and Terra Sigillata as Artefacts, as Simples and as Antibacterial Clays

“…This is because as archaeological artefacts they have a long history of use and associated efficacy. Our work over the last few years has been dedicated to the investigation of the antibacterial properties of some medicinal earths of the Aegean, like Samian Earth [33] and Lemnian Earth [15,16]; also clay-iron oxides composites (miltos) [26], as well as alunogen and alunite with kaolinite minerals [34]. For example, we demonstrated that antibacterial properties of Samian Earth may have been attributed to its smectite being naturally enriched in Boron [33].…”

“…Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was conducted using primers to target the V4 region of the bacterial 16S-rRNA gene (ubiquitous gene used in phylo-taxonomy [26,27]; chloroplast [28]; 18S-rRNA gene of fungus [16,29] and Eurotiales order (e.g., Talaromyces spp. and Penicillium spp., not well recognized by previous fungal primers; [16]). [30].…”

“…In the last three years we have also undertaken analysis and preliminary (qualitative) antibacterial testing of pellets of Lemnian Earth (sphragides) from the collection of the Pharmacy Museum of the University of Basel [15] (see also Figure 1h,j). More recently, quantitative assessment of the same samples showed that two of the three artefacts were antibacterial against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive pathogens, but the third was mildly so and against only one of the two bacteria tested [16].…”

“…63. [16][17][18][19] described the so-called armenion as blue in colour (chroian kyaneon) and similar to chrysokolla in action. Armenian bole was used for various kinds of stomach ailments, for mouth ulcers, and was administered to those suffering from breathing difficulties [20] (p. 190).…”

“…429. [16][17][18][19][20][21]; [23] (p. 227)). Furthermore, Alexander of Tralles mentions that the original Armenian bole was more effective than the Samian and Lemnian Earth [24] (pp.…”