The Janus Face of Stress on Reproduction: From Health to Disease

Abstract

Parenthood is a fundamental feature of all known life. However, infertility has been recognized as a public health issue worldwide. But even when the offspring are conceived, in utero problems can lead to immediate (abortion), early (birth), and late (adulthood) consequences. One of the most studied factors is stress. However, stress response is, per se, of adaptive nature allowing the organism to cope with challenges. Stressors lead to deterioration if one is faced with too long lasting, too many, and seemingly unsolvable situations. In stress adaptation the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis and the resulting glucocorticoid elevation are one of the most important mechanisms. At cellular level stress can be defined as an unbalance between production of free radicals and antioxidant defenses. Oxidative stress is widely accepted as an important pathogenic mechanism in different diseases including infertility. On the other hand, the goal of free radical production is to protect the cells from infectious entities. This review aims to summarize the negative and positive influence of stress on reproduction as a process leading to healthy progeny. Special emphasis was given to the balance at the level of the organism and cells.

Oxidative Status and Reproductive Characteristics in Female Cavies (Cavia porcellus L.) Fed on Aqueous Extract of Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) Seed

“…The can also cause lipid peroxidation and then destroy the cell membrane. These free radicals can be teratogen and led to the deaths of the embryo when the affect germinal cells [29]. In the present study, aqueous extract of avocado seed powder increase the level of MDA in the ovarian tissue of cavies at the highest dose (400 mg/kg bw).…”

Influence of ethanolic extract of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) seed flour on the estrous cycle, the serum concentrations of reproductive hormones, and the activities of oxidative stress markers in female cavies (Cavia porcellus L.)

“…Female mammals are subjected to physiologically induced oxidative stress during reproduction (estrus, gestation, birth, and lactation) [ 1 ]. Oxidative stress is a condition in which the antioxidant and reactive oxygen species (ROS) systems are out of balance, favoring the latter.…”

“…Reproduction is a biological process that results in the formation of new individuals within a species from previously existing individuals [ 1 , 2 ]. Numerous factors can lead to an animal’s inability to reproduce, including endocrine/metabolic illnesses and oxidative stress, which is particularly frequent in females during heat and gestation.…”

Caesarean delivery and pubertal timing in boys and girls: A Danish population‐based cohort study

“…5 Both excessive and inadequate stress can have unfavourable health effects. 6 Decreased birth stress caused by caesarean delivery due to incomplete labour is reported to be associated with a short-term-and long-time-programmed-attenuated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning and thus lead to offspring's adverse developmental outcomes. 7,8 A quantity of evidence has demonstrated the inhibitory effects of stress on reproduction by disrupting hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis function.…”

“…The normal increase in the stress hormone, cortisol, during labour is beneficial for the newborn's adaptation to the extra‐uterine environment 5 . Both excessive and inadequate stress can have unfavourable health effects 6 . Decreased birth stress caused by caesarean delivery due to incomplete labour is reported to be associated with a short‐term‐ and long‐time‐programmed‐attenuated hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal (HPA) axis functioning and thus lead to offspring's adverse developmental outcomes 7,8 .…”