The Lethal and Sub-Lethal Effects of Fluorinated and Copper-Based Pesticides—A Review

Abstract

In recent decades, pollution levels have increased, mainly as a result of the intensive anthropogenic activities such industrial development, intensive agricultural practices, among others. The impact of metals and organic contaminants is, nowadays, a great concern to the scientific and political communities. Copper compounds are the main sold pesticides in Europe, as well as herbicides, including glyphosate. Diphenyl ethers are the second ones most sold. Glyphosate and copper compounds are intensively studied, but the opposite is seen in the case of diphenyl ethers, including fluorinated pesticides (e.g., oxyfluorfen). Some research has been performed to increase the knowledge about these contaminants, daily inputted on the aquatic systems and with dangerous effects at physical and biochemical levels on the organisms. A wide range of biomarkers (e.g., growth, survival, reproductive success, enzymatic activity, lipid metabolism) has been applied to determine the potential effects in many species. This review intends to: (a) perform a compilation of the knowledge in previous research about the action mode of organic (fluorinated-based herbicide) and inorganic (copper-based pesticides) contaminants; (b) carry out an information survey about the lethal and sub-lethal effects of the fluorinated-based pesticides, namely the oxyfluorfen and the copper-based pesticides, on aquatic species from different trophic levels, according to in vitro and in vivo studies; (c) understand the impact of oxyfluorfen and copper-based pesticides, considering their effects reported in in vitro studies and, simultaneously, the authorized concentrations by legal organizations and the effective concentrations of each pollutant found in the environment. The literature analyzed revealed noxious effects of Cu and oxyfluorfen to aquatic organisms, including freshwater and marine species, even when exposed to the reference as well as to environmental concentrations, thus highlighting the importance of more monitoring and ecotoxicological studies, to chemical pollutants and different species from different ecological niches, to sustain and improve the legislation.

Double- or Triple-Tiered Protection: Prospects for the Sustainable Application of Copper-Based Antimicrobial Compounds for Another Fourteen Decades

“…Conventional nanoparticle synthesis routes using chemical and physical methods, such as chemical reduction, hydrothermal, and sol–gel, methods are considered harmful to the environment, due to the use of toxic chemical products, and are also costly. In response, many aqueous extracts from plants such as Portulaca oleracea and Piper nigrum have recently been used to biosynthesize promising, safe, cheap, and eco-friendly Cu-NPs [ 21 , 36 , 37 ]. Moreover, recent studies have shown that copper nanoparticles in combination with conventional fungicides can provide an environmentally safe and sustainable resistance management strategy through reducing the use of fungicides [ 38 ].…”

“…Second, the long-term and excessive use of CBACs has caused the deposition of copper in the soil and environmental pollution [ 21 , 144 ]. Therefore, in order to ensure the safe use of CBACs for another 13 decades (or even longer), it is imperative to further reduce their usage, together with their tolerance to scouring by rain.…”

“…Scientific researchers have revealed the positive effective roles of Cu-NPs in controlling diseases, reducing toxicity, promoting growth, and increasing ion content in rice seeds [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 145 ]. In addition, with technological improvement and development, the cost of Cu-NPs and plant-based CuO-NPs can be expected to gradually decrease [ 21 , 36 , 145 ], laying the foundation for the long-term use of CBACs. Along with the innovation of advanced production technologies, traditional CBACs are improving in a more stable, low-toxicity, and environmentally friendly manner.…”

“…Along with the innovation of adva production technologies, traditional CBACs are improving in a more stable, low-tox and environmentally friendly manner. Scientists may develop novel adjuvants to inc the ductility, adhesion, and permeability of CBACs, allowing for a reduction in the co Second, the long-term and excessive use of CBACs has caused the deposition of copper in the soil and environmental pollution [21,144]. Therefore, in order to ensure the safe use of CBACs for another 13 decades (or even longer), it is imperative to further reduce their usage, together with their tolerance to scouring by rain.…”

“…With broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, CBACs can control a wide range of plant diseases, such as grape downy mildew [ 9 ], citrus black spot [ 10 ], fire blight of pome fruits [ 11 ], walnut blight [ 12 , 13 ], potato late blight [ 14 ], stone fruit canker [ 15 ], coffee berry disease [ 16 ], olive leaf spot [ 17 ], and powdery mildew of many other crops [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. At present, not considering metal contaminants, CBACs are still at the forefront as the main pesticides sold in Europe [ 8 , 21 ].…”