The Macronutrients, Appetite, and Energy Intake

Abstract

Each of the macronutrients, carbohydrate, protein and fat, has a unique set of properties that influence health, but all are a source of energy. The optimal balance of their contribution to the diet has been a long-standing matter of debate. Over the past half century, there has been a progression of thinking regarding the mechanisms by which each may contribute to energy balance. At the beginning of this time period, the emphasis was on metabolic signals that initiated eating events (i.e., determined eating frequency). This was followed by an orientation to gut endocrine signals that purportedly modulate the size of eating events (i.e., determined portion size). Most recently, research attention has been directed to the brain where the reward signals elicited by the macronutrients are viewed as potentially problematic (i.e., contribute to disordered eating). At this point the predictive power of the macronutrients for energy intake remains limited.

Intense physical exercise potentiates glucose inhibitory effect over food intake of male Wistar rats

“…Although it is recognized that the oral glucose tolerance test is a more physiological approach than the intra‐peritoneal glucose tolerance test, it is reasonable to think that this methodology would drive changes in the gastrointestinal environment. In this regard, gastrointestinal hormones could play a direct role in the hypothalamic circuitry related to feeding behaviour, especially in the arcuate nucleus (Carreiro et al., ; Parker, Gribble, & Reimann, ), which could generate a misinterpretation of our data. To avoid this bias and to bring a real insight into the addressed hypothesis, we decided to administer glucose intraperitoneally.…”

“…In this regard, gastrointestinal hormones could play a direct role in the hypothalamic circuitry related to feeding behaviour, especially in the arcuate nucleus (Carreiro et al, 2016;Parker, Gribble, & Reimann, 2014), which could generate a misinterpretation of our data. To avoid this bias and to bring a real insight into the addressed hypothesis, we decided to administer glucose intraperitoneally.…”

Nutritional approaches for managing obesity-associated metabolic diseases

“…In some cases, excess intake of any one macronutrient can also result in such consequences (Ambrosini, et al 2012; Carreiro, et al 2016; Hörnell, et al 2013; Moslehi, et al 2015). It seems multiple mechanisms exist for how overnutrition stimulates this process.…”

Protein for Life: Towards a focussed dietary framework for healthy ageing

“…; Carreiro et al . ). Nevertheless, one possibility is that the values placed on calories from fat, carbohydrate and protein differ, and this may vary with age.…”

“…A potential concern is that modelling overall energy content masks subtle differences in the value that is placed on individual macronutrients. Evidence for macronutrientspecific appetites (especially for protein) is mixed (Berthoud et al 2012;Carreiro et al 2016). Nevertheless, one possibility is that the values placed on calories from fat, carbohydrate and protein differ, and this may vary with age.…”