The Main Molecular and Serological Methods for Diagnosing COVID-19: An Overview Based on the Literature

Machado, Bruna Aparecida Souza; Hodel, Katharine Valéria Saraiva; Barbosa-Júnior, Valdir Gomes; Soares, Milena Botelho Pereira; Badaró, Roberto

doi:10.3390/v13010040

Cited by 58 publications

(69 citation statements)

References 219 publications

(216 reference statements)

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“…Methodological factors are also important. While qRT-PCR assay, as discussed above, is the first-line screening method of choice for SARS-CoV-2 detection due to its high sensitivity and rapid detection [7], there is a real risk of false negative and false positive results [40]. False negative results may be due to sample inhibitors, poor amplification efficiency, and reduced precision in low concentration samples.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Molecular diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 in seminal fluid

Paoli

Pallotti

Nigro

et al. 2021

J Endocrinol Invest

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Purpose Due to relevant repercussions on reproductive medicine, we aimed to evaluate feasibility of RT-PCR as a detection method of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in seminal fluid. Methods A qualitative determination of the RT-PCR assays in semen was performed through different approaches: (1) efficiency of RNA extraction from sperm and seminal plasma was determined using PRM1 and PRM2 mRNA and a heterologous system as control; (2) samples obtained by diluting viral preparation from a SARS-CoV-2 panel (virus cultured in Vero E6 cell lines) were tested; (3) viral presence in different fractions of seminal fluid (whole sample, seminal plasma and post-centrifugation pellet) was evaluated. Semen samples from mild and recovered COVID-19 subjects were collected by patients referring to the Infectious Disease Department of the Policlinico Umberto I Hospital - “Sapienza” University of Rome. Control subjects were recruited at the Laboratory of Seminology-Sperm Bank “Loredana Gandini'' of the same hospital. Results The control panel using viral preparations diluted in saline and seminal fluid showed the capability to detect viral RNA presence with Ct values depending on the initial viral concentration. All tested semen samples were negative for SARS-CoV-2, regardless of the nasopharyngeal swab result or seminal fluid fraction. Conclusion These preliminary data show that RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 RNA testing appears to be a feasible method for the molecular diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 in seminal fluid, supported by results of the control panel. The ability to detect SARS-CoV-2 in semen is extremely important for reproductive medicine, especially in assisted reproductive technology and sperm cryopreservation.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…None of the urine samples tested were positive [4,6]. According to some authors, these different viral loads could be attributed to the sample type or timing, the stage of the disease and/or where the specimen was taken from, all factors that play an important role in RT-qPCR results [7].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Molecular diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 in seminal fluid

Paoli

Pallotti

Nigro

et al. 2021

J Endocrinol Invest

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Section: Estimating the Incidence Of Sars-cov-2 Infectionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The mainstay or recognized Gold Standard of COVID-19 confirmation is the detection of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid in appropriately taken specimens [ 8 , 9 ]. Typically, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods have been used; however, other methodologies such as loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) have given promising results [ 9 , 10 ]. Virus antigen tests using lateral flow technology are also widely available offering the means to screen for infection in non-laboratory settings in real time [ 11 , 12 ].…”

Section: Estimating the Incidence Of Sars-cov-2 Infectionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Population (Antibody) Testing for COVID-19—Technical Challenges, Application and Relevance, an English Perspective

Maple

2021

Vaccines

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In the UK, population virus or antibody testing using virus swabs, serum samples, blood spots or oral fluids has been performed to a limited extent for several diseases including measles, mumps, rubella and hepatitis and HIV. The collection of population-based infection and immunity data is key to the monitoring of disease prevalence and assessing the effectiveness of interventions such as behavioural modifications and vaccination. In particular, the biological properties of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its interaction with the human host have presented several challenges towards the development of population-based immunity testing. Measuring SARS-CoV-2 immunity requires the development of antibody assays of acceptable sensitivity and specificity which are capable of accurately detecting seroprevalence and differentiating protection from non-protective responses. Now that anti-COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available there is a pressing need to measure vaccine efficacy and the development of herd immunity. The unprecedented impact of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in the UK in terms of morbidity, mortality, and economic and social disruption has mobilized a national scientific effort to learn more about this virus. In this article, the challenges of testing for SARS-CoV-2 infection, particularly in relation to population-based immunity testing, will be considered and examples given of relevant national level studies.

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“…Two main types of tests for Covid-19 are available. [ 40 ] Virus tests detect the presence of the virus, which indicates an active infection. Antibody tests detect the presence of antibodies against the virus.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Who should be tested in a pandemic? Ethical considerations

2021

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Background In the initial phase of the Covid-19 pandemic, difficult decisions had to be made on the allocation of testing resources. Similar situations can arise in future pandemics. Therefore, careful consideration of who should be tested is an important part of pandemic preparedness. We focus on four ethical aspects of that problem: how to prioritize scarce testing resources, the regulation of commercial direct-to-consumer test services, testing of unauthorized immigrants, and obligatory testing. Main text The distribution of scarce resources for testing: We emphasize the use of needs-based criteria, but also acknowledge the importance of choosing a testing strategy that contributes efficiently to stopping the overall spread of the disease. Commercial direct-to-consumer test services: Except in cases of acute scarcity, such services will in practice have to be allowed. We propose that they should be subject to regulation that ensures test quality and adequate information to users. Testing of unauthorized immigrants, their children and other people with unclear legal status: Like everyone else, these individuals may be in need of testing, and it is in society’s interest to reach them with testing in order to stop the spread of the disease. A society that offers comprehensive medical services to unauthorized immigrants is in a much better position to reach them in a pandemic than a society that previously excluded them from healthcare. Obligatory testing: While there are often strong reasons for universal testing in residential areas or on workplaces, there are in most cases better ways to achieve testing coverage than to make testing mandatory. Conclusion In summary, we propose (1) decision-making primarily based on needs-based criteria, (2) strict regulation but not prohibition of direct-to-consumer test services, (3) test services offered to unauthorized immigrants, preferably as part of comprehensive medical services, and (4) broad outreach of testing services whenever possible, but in general not obligatory testing.

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The Main Molecular and Serological Methods for Diagnosing COVID-19: An Overview Based on the Literature

Cited by 58 publications

References 219 publications

Molecular diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 in seminal fluid

Molecular diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 in seminal fluid

Population (Antibody) Testing for COVID-19—Technical Challenges, Application and Relevance, an English Perspective

Who should be tested in a pandemic? Ethical considerations

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