The nature of nurture: Genetic influence on “environmental” measures

Abstract

Evidence for genetic influence on environmental measures will emerge in quantitative genetic analyses if genetically influenced characteristics of individuals are assessed by these environmental measures. Recent twin and adoption studies indicate substantial genetic influence when measures of the environment are treated as phenotypes in genetic analyses. Genetic influence has been documented for measures as diverse as videotaped observations of parental behavior toward their children, ratings by parents and children of their family environment, and ratings of peer groups, social support, and life events. Evidence for genetic influence on environmental measures includes some of the most widely used measures of environment – the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment, the Family Environment Scales, and the Social Readjustment Rating Scale of life events, for example. The goal of this article is to document and discuss these findings and to elicit commentary that might help to shape the course of research on this topic, which has far-reaching implications for the behavioral and brain sciences.

Social support: a genetic-epidemiologic analysis

“…Consistent with the predictions of evolutionary theory, it is likely that gene action for an animal as quintessentially social as homo sapiens can often reach "beyond the skin" to affect the interpersonal environment as part of an "extended" phenotype (28). In support of this is accumulating evidence that a range of putative environmental measures used in the behavioral sciences are influenced by genetic factors (29,30). Social support has been shown to predict a wide variety of medical and psychiatric outcomes, including coronary artery disease (31,32), pregnancy complications (33), depression (34), and alcoholism (35), although the mechanisms by which social support affects these diseases may not be straightforward (36).…”

Gene–environment correlations: a review of the evidence and implications for prevention of mental illness

“…9,20,21 For example, studies of adult twins have shown that desirable and undesirable life events are moderately heritable 22,23 as are specific life events and life circumstances, including divorce, 24,25 the propensity to marry, 26 marital quality 27 and social support. [28][29][30] Studies in which researchers have measured child-specific aspects of the environment have also shown that putative environmental factors, such as parental discipline or warmth, are moderately heritable 12 (for reviews, see Plomin and Bergeman 20 ).…”

“…Television viewing, peer group orientations and social attitudes have all been shown to be moderately heritable. 20,31,32 There is also a growing literature on the genetic factors influencing behaviors that constitute a risk to health, such as the consumption of alcohol, tobacco and illegal drugs, and risk-taking behaviors. [33][34][35][36] Like parental discipline, these healthrelated behaviors are genetically influenced, but are thought to have environmentally mediated effects on disease.…”

“…The research conducted by the COGA group on GABRA2 illustrates this concept. Edenberg et al 45 found that GABRA2 was not only strongly linked to alcohol dependence, but also to brain oscillations in the beta frequency range (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28). Beta rhythms reflect a balance between excitatory and inhibitory networks of nerve cells and this balance is thought to be regulated by the GABA A receptor.…”

Achievements and challenges in the biology of environmental effects

“…First, gene-environment correlation (rGE) (3,81) means that the risk effects of some experiences may be genetically mediated in part, emphasizing the need to test whether the risk effects are truly environmentally mediated. In addition, however, rGE shows the importance of people's shaping and selecting of experiences and implies the role of the active processing of experiences and not just their passive operation.…”