The nexus between international trade, food systems, malnutrition and climate change

Abstract

F ood systems, which are at the heart of pressing societal challenges including malnutrition and climate change, are heavily influenced by trade-related changes to domestic policy and product environments-in both positive and negative ways. This interaction between trade, malnutrition and climate change has been amplified in the last decades by the shift towards industrial food systems, with global supply chains owned and operated by large or transnational agribusinesses, manufacturers, retailers and food service chains 1 . If global malnutrition and climate change are to be addressed, it is vital to understand their link with trade agreements and how these can be improved to support a nutritious, equitable and environmentally sustainable food system. While there is a growing body of evidence related to trade, food systems and malnutrition, what remains absent from the literature is an examination of the current understanding of the ways in which the technical and political aspects of trade agreements interact with food systems to affect malnutrition and climate change. Here, we review the literature connecting trade and food systems to show how major technical and political aspects of such relationships may affect malnutrition and climate change ( Fig. 1). We aim to elucidate how the technicalities of trade, through different types of agreements and provisions, sit alongside the political economy of trade policy. In doing so, we also highlight the opportunities and challenges of creating nutrition-and climate-sensitive trade policy.The Review starts with an overview of the global food trade regime and the technicalities of how trade agreements interact with policies aimed at improving malnutrition and climate change. It then focuses on the political and policy processes surrounding trade agreements that can enable or constrain attention to malnutrition and climate change. Global and national policy windows for connecting trade, nutrition and climate change mitigation are highlighted at the end, as well as how public interest actors must work to ensure policy coherence towards those goals. The global trade regimeEstablished in 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) governs the multilateral trade rules among its 164 member countries 2 and presides over 24 multilateral trade agreements. These agreements cover a wide range of binding obligations on issues including trade in services (General Agreement on Trades in Services; GATS), Trade-Related aspects of Intellectual Property rights (TRIPS), Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), agriculture (the Agreement on Agriculture; AOA) and a dispute settlement system 3 .Through these trade agreements, member states are required to open their markets, including agri-food markets, by reducing tariffs and non-tariff barriers to imports, reducing subsidies for exports and reducing domestic agricultural support. WTO rules promote the global integration of markets and provide a favourable operating environment for the private sector. These liberalization policies and agreements hav...

Scenarios for Global Aquaculture and Its Role in Human Nutrition

“…International trade agreements began with an emphasis on trade liberalization (opening markets by reducing tariff and non-tariff barriers) and non-discrimination (equalizing treatment of goods and services) under the World Trade Organization, but have expanded to include bi-and multi-lateral agreements that include provisions about domestic policy, health and safety rules, labor standards, and environmental practices (Rodrik 2018b;Friel et al 2020). Notably though, international trade agreements to liberalize food trade are legally binding, while international agreements or policy recommendations targeted at addressing malnutrition are not (Friel et al 2020). Some Low and Middle Income Countries have challenged the dominant free trade approach to addressing malnutrition, pushing for exemptions from trade liberalization in order to pursue greater food sovereignty (Friel et al 2020).…”

“…Notably though, international trade agreements to liberalize food trade are legally binding, while international agreements or policy recommendations targeted at addressing malnutrition are not (Friel et al 2020). Some Low and Middle Income Countries have challenged the dominant free trade approach to addressing malnutrition, pushing for exemptions from trade liberalization in order to pursue greater food sovereignty (Friel et al 2020). Certification schemes, on the other hand, signal production standards to consumers, often related to human rights and environmental health (Derkx and Glasbergen 2014).…”

“…For example, the 2008 grain crisis, wherein high grain prices driven by a combination of regional droughts, biofuel demand, high oil prices, and the depreciation of the US dollar triggered a series of export bans (Headey 2011). The vast consequences of the crisis, which drove 130 million people into poverty and 75 million people into malnourishment, prompted governments to reconsider reliance on foreign foods (Headey 2011;Friel et al 2020). This crisis prompted countries throughout Asia and Africa to turn toward greater food sovereignty, creating or expanding public staple crop stocks (Friel et al 2020).…”

“…The vast consequences of the crisis, which drove 130 million people into poverty and 75 million people into malnourishment, prompted governments to reconsider reliance on foreign foods (Headey 2011;Friel et al 2020). This crisis prompted countries throughout Asia and Africa to turn toward greater food sovereignty, creating or expanding public staple crop stocks (Friel et al 2020). Other recent sudden policy changes hint at a turn inward.…”

Global relationships between crop diversity and nutritional stability

“…Finally, the important role of imports in our findings for many regions highlights that nutritional stability is market exposed. While trade can positively affect food security (33), it can also hinder nutrition efforts (34), and could be a vulnerability if imports comprise a significant portion of nutrients for a given population. Countries with a high reliance on imports are thus subject to trade wars, market shifts, and price shocks that can occur for a variety of reasons.…”