The ontogeny of visual–motor memory and its importance in handwriting and reading: a developing construct

Abstract

Humans have evolved a remarkable ability to remember visual shapes and use these representations to generate motor activity (from Palaeolithic cave drawings through Jiahu symbols to cursive handwriting). The term visualmotor memory (VMM) describes this psychological ability, which must have conveyed an evolutionary advantage and remains critically important to humans (e.g. when learning to write). Surprisingly, little empirical investigation of this unique human ability exists-almost certainly because of the technological difficulties involved in measuring VMM. We deployed a novel technique for measuring this construct in 87 children (6-11 years old, 44 females). Children drew novel shapes presented briefly on a tablet laptop screen, drawing their responses from memory on the screen using a digitizer stylus. Sophisticated algorithms (using point-registration techniques) objectively quantified the accuracy of the children's reproductions. VMM improved with age and performance decreased with shape complexity, indicating that the measure captured meaningful developmental changes. The relationship between VMM and scores on nationally standardized writing assessments were explored with the results showing a clear relationship between these measures, even after controlling for age. Moreover, a relationship between VMM and the nationally standardized reading test was mediated via writing ability, suggesting VMM's wider importance within language development.

A motor planning stage represents the shape of upcoming movement trajectories

“…On the other hand, this representation, as implied by the phenomenon of kinematic motor equivalence in handwriting, seems to exist at a fairly abstract level that precedes choices of the size scale (van Galen and Teulings 1983;Wing 2000) or effector (Rijntjes et al 1999;Wright 1990), choices that are often implied as part of motor imagery. Hence, trajectory representation may exist somewhere between what is classically considered to be visual imagery and motor imagery (e.g., "visual-motor memory"; Waterman et al 2015) and could facilitate the transformation from visual movement goals to motor commands for execution.…”

From Hand to Eye With the Devil In-Between: Which Cognitive Mechanisms Underpin the Benefit From Handwriting Training When Learning Visual Graphs?

“…Handwriting is a perceptual-motor multi-component task that involves a plethora of processes, including balance, eye-hand coordination, focused attention, visual processing, fine coordination of hand movements, and precise motor control of spatial and temporal constraints ( Waterman et al, 2015 ; Julius et al, 2016 ). Behaviorally, HW is characterized by legibility and fluency (i.e., accuracy and speed in reproduction).…”

“…Notably, other mechanism could be involved. Along training, HW becomes automatic (legibility reaches a plateau by 2nd-grade, but HW only becomes automatic around the 3rd-grade, between 8 and 11 years of age; Waterman et al, 2015 ; Julius et al, 2016 ; Palmis et al, 2020 ). One generates similar graph shapes with different limbs and execution modes, suggesting that abstract , effector-independent motoric representations are involved.…”

Visual-motor integration and reading Chinese in children with/without dyslexia

“…As individuals engage in handwriting practice, they become faster and proficient to recall and execute the commands to produce legible letter/word form (Medwell & Wray, 2014). This is because handwriting could aid pattern recognition when reading because of more practiced recall of letter/word forms (Waterman, Havelka, Culmer, Hill, & Mon-Williams, 2015).…”