The Owners of Xenophobia: Zimbabwean Informal Enterprise and Xenophobic Violence in South Africa

Abstract

This paper is a contribution to our understanding of the intertwined economic and political crises in Zimbabwe and the crisis of xenophobia in South Africa. There have been few studies to date specifically examining the impact of xenophobic violence on Zimbabweans trying to make a living in the South African informal economy. The paper first provides a picture of Zimbabwean migrant entrepreneurship using survey data from a 2015 study of migrants in the informal economy. All of the Zimbabwean entrepreneurs interviewed in depth for the study in 2016 had either witnessed or been the victims of xenophobic violence or both. The interviews focused on the experience and impact of xenophobic violence on personal safety and business operations. The migrant accounts clearly demonstrate that they see xenophobia as a key driver of the hostility, looting and violence that they experience. The paper argues that the deep-rooted crisis in Zimbabwe, which has driven many to South Africa in the first place, makes return home in the face of xenophobia a non-viable option. Zimbabweans are forced to adopt a number of self-protection strategies, none of which ultimately provide insurance against future attack.

Negotiating In(security): Agency and Adaptation Among Zimbabwean Migrant Women Working in the Informal Sector in South Africa

“…South Africa has high levels of gender-based violence and, increasingly, xenophobia, and migrant women are also victims of such violence (Lefko-Everett, 2011, p. 277; Sigsworth, 2010, p. 2). There are common misconceptions that African migrants import diseases and crime, steal jobs and opportunities, and drain the health care system and other state resources (Crush et al, 2017, p. 21; Dodson, 2010, p. 5). Institutional xenophobia has also been widely reported in literature, implicating institutions such as the police department for frequently intimidating and arresting migrants through targeted operations (Opfermann, 2019, p. 7).…”

“…Previous studies that show the migration pattern from Zimbabwe to South Africa suggest that one of the drivers of migration over the past two decades has been the country’s political instability and ailing economy (Bloch, 2010; Crush et al, 2017; McDuff, 2015). The data is similar to a study that examined the reasons that influenced Zimbabwean women to leave and concurs that economic difficulties in the form of poverty and unemployment are the key migration “push factors” for female Zimbabwean migrants (Lefko-Everett, 2010, p. 269).…”

“…The deepening levels of poverty in Zimbabwe have resulted in high numbers of Zimbabwean women migrating to South Africa in the hopes of securing a better standard of living. The relatively stable political climate and relatively strong economy, coupled with low travel costs, make South Africa an attractive destination for many Zimbabwean migrants (Crush et al, 2017, p. 13). Historically, mostly men migrated from Zimbabwe to work in South African farms and diamond mines, while the women stayed at home, looking after families.…”

Immigrant entrepreneurship with a focus on human and social capital as determinants of success: evidence from South Africa

“…While South Africa may be one of the most advanced economies within the emerging African economies, it is also saddled with serious socio-economic challenges such as high unemployment rate and high poverty levels and has the world’s highest level of socio-economic inequality as measured by a Gini co-efficient (World Bank, 2018). Naturally, these challenges have created an environment where anti-immigration sentiments have mutated into xenophobia against African migrants (Crush et al , 2017; Gordon, 2020). Considering this adverse context, the findings of this study may potentially help South African policy makers better understand and apply measures to advance immigrant entrepreneurship.…”

Combatting violence against African foreign nationals: A criminological approach towards community safety in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa

“…Conversely, a study conducted by Cinini 8 has demonstrated that having the appropriate legal status is not a guarantee to secure a job in Durban and that foreign nationals who have legal documentation still face discrimination in governmental and private institutions, not only for jobs but for other services earmarked for them as migrants. For instance, Crush and Tawodzera 9 report that migrants and refugees face severe obstacles in accessing loans from formal sources in South Africa as they require collateral. To that end, Moagi et al 10 confirm that, in South Africa, xenophobia has damaged the informal employment sector, resulting in higher unemployment rates due to the displacement and burning of immigrant shops that employed South Africans.…”