The Paradoxical Relationship Between Gender Inequality and Rape

Abstract

This article develops and tests a refined feminist theory of rape. The author proposes that the short-term effect of gender equality is an increased rape rate via increased threats to the status quo, whereas the long-term effect of gender equality is reduced rape rates via an improved social climate toward women. Using panel data for 109 U.S. cities over three decades—1970, 1980, and 1990—the author's expectations are generally confirmed. Because measures of inequality are used, supportive cross-sectional coefficients are negative and supportive lagged coefficients are positive. In the short term, gender inequality reduces the rape rate, whereas in the long term, higher levels of gender inequality are associated with higher levels of rape. Gender inequality in income, education, access to high-status occupations, and legal status are each positively associated with the change in rape in at least one change period (1970 to 1980, 1980 to 1990, and 1970 to 1990).

A Retrospective Investigation of Gender Inequality and Female Homicide Victimization

“…This would be informed by the prediction (Russell 1975;Whaley 2001) that, over time, the backlash effects of greater gender parity found in other research might ultimately give way to an ameliorative effect upon female violent victimization as was found in this study. To illustrate, in the period of 1980 to 1988, the proportion of college students who are women increased by approximately three percent, from 51.4 percent to 53.7 percent.…”

Gender equity, traditional masculine culture, and female homicide victimization

“…This backlash hypothesis stressed an unintended consequence of female empowerment: increased gender equality represented a threat to male dominance and might result in higher rates of female victimization as males react defensively (Messerschmidt, 1993). This approach (Russell, 1975;Williams & Holmes, 1981) was similar to Blalock's threat hypothesis (1967) and also received some empirical support, with Bailey (1999), Brewer and Smith (1995), Vieraitis and Williams (2002), and Whaley (2001) showing a positive relationship between selected measures of gender equality and rape or female homicide victimization.…”

“…It was notable, as well, that the effects applied to Whites but not to overall rates, which might offer some limited support for the theories, though seemingly not through the mechanisms tested here. Whaley (2001) showed that the association between gender parity and female victimization might be positive in the short-term, but negative over longer periods. She concluded that the initial threat to malesT privileged status might result in an immediate backlash.…”

“…Most studies of gender equality and female victimization examined rape (Bailey, 1999;Peterson & Bailey, 1992;Whaley, 2001), though recent research employed female homicide offending and victimization as dependent variables (Gauthier & Bankston, 1997;Whaley & Messner, 2003). Initial work focused on an expected negative relationship between gender equality and female victimization, arguing that male dominance and low female status resulted in (1) female victimization as a mechanism of maintaining male superiority, and (2) males acting with relative impunity given their control of social and legal institutions.…”

Assessing the Impact of Changes in Gender Equality on Female Homicide Victimization

“…In contrast, the backlash hypothesis predicts that women's gains relative to men will, at least in the short run, increase the female homicide victimization rate. As Whaley (2001) argues in her article on gender inequality and rape, these hypotheses are best tested by including time in the models. However, past research on gender equality and female homicide victimization has rarely included the element of time and often excludes measures of women's absolute status and therefore has not adequately addressed these three overlapping and theoretically significant hypotheses.…”