The persistence of loneliness: Self and other determinants1

Abstract

Four studies (total n = 469) examined correlates of loneliness in order to explore explanations for the persistence of loneliness among college students. Self-report and attitude scales, ratings of others following dyadic interactions, and self and other ratings at two points during an extended period of group interactions indicated that lonely students (a) rated themselves more negatively and reported deficits in social skills and self-concept, (b) rated specific others and people-in-general more negatively and were more alienated and externalized, (c) expected others to rate them negatively, but (d) in general were not differentially rated by others except in the initial phase of group interactions and by lonely others following dyadic interactions. Results suggested that loneliness may be perpetuated by its cognitive and affective concomitants, with some evidence for gender differences, whereas inconclusive evidence was found regarding responses of others to the lonely person.Loneliness is a distressing and common problem in which a person's network of interpersonal relationships is smaller or less satisfying than desired (Peplau & Perlman, 1979). One national survey indicated that 26% of the sample reported feeling lonely, suggesting the pervasiveness of the problem (Bradburn, 1969). The determinants of loneliness have not been identified. However, they are usually considered (e.g., Weiss, 1973) to be a combination of personal vulnerabilities (e.g,, ineffective social skills) and circumstances (e.g., divorce, social mobility).Despite its importance, until recently, systematic research in this area was relatively uncommon. In particular, one question which 1, Preliminary reports of this paper were presented at the

Investigating Hypervigilance for Social Threat of Lonely Children

“…One such bias is conceptualized as the 'hypervigilance for social threat hypothesis' (HSTH), where it is argued that rejection sensitivity contributes to behavioral deficiencies (e.g., withdrawal) that undermine the opportunities to develop and maintain positive social relationships (Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009). Several studies provide support for the HSTH in adults (Jones & Carver, 1991;Jones, Freemon & Goswick, 1981;Sloan & Solano, 1984), but there has been little work on this in children. Confirming the HSTH during childhood is important because it would indicate that this form of social information bias is evident during development and, therefore, a potential contributor to the persistence of loneliness from childhood through to adulthood, which itself predicts mental and physical health.…”

“…It is a prevalent problem in children, adolescents and adults (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Rotenberg & Hymel, 1999), and is acknowledged in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR: American Psychiatric Association, 2000) because it often causes significant distress and/or intensifies mental disorders or conditions (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). It is argued that loneliness is a common emotion that serves to promote reconnection with others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 (Jones & Carver, 1991;Jones, et al, 1981;Sloan & Solano, 1984); it is not the same as social anxiety (Jones, Rose, & Russell, 1990).…”

“…It is a prevalent problem in children, adolescents and adults (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Rotenberg & Hymel, 1999), and is acknowledged in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR: American Psychiatric Association, 2000) because it often causes significant distress and/or intensifies mental disorders or conditions (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). It is argued that loneliness is a common emotion that serves to promote reconnection with others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 (Jones & Carver, 1991;Jones, et al, 1981;Sloan & Solano, 1984); it is not the same as social anxiety (Jones, Rose, & Russell, 1990).Being lonely certainly influences how people perceive their social world (Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009). For example, despite their own perceptions of being rejected, empirical work shows that lonely adults are not overly rejected by others (Jones, 1990;Jones & Carver, 1991;Jones et al, 1981;Jones, Sansone, & Helm, 1983;Sloan & Solano, 1984).…”

“…It is argued that loneliness is a common emotion that serves to promote reconnection with others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 (Jones & Carver, 1991;Jones, et al, 1981;Sloan & Solano, 1984); it is not the same as social anxiety (Jones, Rose, & Russell, 1990).…”

“…And, although peer rejection has been shown to be associated with loneliness during childhood (Asher, Parkhurst, Hymel, & Williams, 1990; Boivin, Hymel and Bukowski, 1995), there is some indication that perceived peer rejection rather than actual rejection plays a crucial role in these associations, with a large proportion of lonely children being well liked by their peers (Qualter & Munn, 2002. Given this, it is surprising that there has been no concerted focus on the (HSTH) cognitions related to loneliness the childhood.Additional support for HSTH comes from research showing that lonely adults also feel more threatened in social encounters and worry more about being disliked by others (Cacioppo, Ernst, et al, 2000;Duck, Pond & Leatham, 1994;Jones et al, 1983;Jones et al, 1981).Amongst adolescents, loneliness is related to reports of interpersonal stress and fears of being rejected by peers (Doane & Adam, 2010). Lonely adults and children also make more selfderogatory attributions compared to non-lonely people, seeing themselves as less likable than their peers (Snodgrass, 1987;Qualter & Munn, 2002).…”